Some have argued from 2 Cor. 12:14; 13:1, that Paul visited Corinth a third time (i.e., that on some unrecorded occasion he visited the city between what are usually called the first and second visits). But the passages referred to only indicate Paul's intention to visit Corinth (comp. 1 Cor. 16:5, where the Greek present tense denotes an intention), an intention which was in some way frustrated. We can hardly suppose that such a visit could have been made by the apostle without more distinct reference to it.
Corinthians, First Epistle to the - was written from
Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:8) about the time of the Passover in the third year of the
apostle's sojourn there (Acts 19:10; 20:31), and when he had formed the purpose
to visit Macedonia, and then return to Corinth (probably A.D. 57).
The news which had reached him, however, from Corinth frustrated his plan. He
had heard of the abuses and contentions that had arisen among them, first from
Apollos (Acts 19:1), and then from a letter they had written him on the subject,
and also from some of the "household of Chloe," and from Stephanas and his two
friends who had visited him (1 Cor. 1:11; 16:17). Paul thereupon wrote this
letter, for the purpose of checking the factious spirit and correcting the
erroneous opinions that had sprung up among them, and remedying the many abuses
and disorderly practices that prevailed. Titus and a brother whose name is not
given were probably the bearers of the letter (2 Cor. 2:13; 8:6, 16-18).
The epistle may be divided into four parts:
(1.) The apostle deals with the subject of the lamentable divisions and party
strifes that had arisen among them (1 Cor. 1-4).
(2.) He next treats of certain cases of immorality that had become notorious
among them. They had apparently set at nought the very first principles of
morality (5; 6).
(3.) In the third part he discusses various questions of doctrine and of
Christian ethics in reply to certain communications they had made to him. He
especially rectifies certain flagrant abuses regarding the celebration of the
Lord's supper (7-14).
(4.) The concluding part (15; 16) contains an elaborate defense of the
doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, which had been called in question by
some among them, followed by some general instructions, intimations, and
greetings.
This epistle "shows the powerful self-control of the apostle in spite of his
physical weakness, his distressed circumstances, his incessant troubles, and his
emotional nature. It was written, he tells us, in bitter anguish, 'out of much
affliction and pressure of heart...and with streaming eyes' (2 Cor. 2:4); yet he
restrained the expression of his feelings, and wrote with a dignity and holy
calm which he thought most calculated to win back his erring children. It gives
a vivid picture of the early church...It entirely dissipates the dream that the
apostolic church was in an exceptional condition of holiness of life or purity
of doctrine." The apostle in this epistle unfolds and applies great principles
fitted to guide the church of all ages in dealing with the same and kindred
evils in whatever form they may appear.
This is one of the epistles the authenticity of which has never been called
in question by critics of any school, so many and so conclusive are the
evidences of its Pauline origin.
The subscription to this epistle states erroneously in the Authorized Version
that it was written at Philippi. This error arose from a mistranslation of 1
Cor. 16:5, "For I do pass through Macedonia," which was interpreted as meaning,
"I am passing through Macedonia." In 16:8 he declares his intention of remaining
some time longer in Ephesus. After that, his purpose is to "pass through
Macedonia."
Corinthians, Second Epistle to the - Shortly after
writing his first letter to the Corinthians, Paul left Ephesus, where intense
excitement had been aroused against him, the evidence of his great success, and
proceeded to Macedonia. Pursuing the usual route, he reached Troas, the port of
departure for Europe. Here he expected to meet with Titus, whom he had sent from
Ephesus to Corinth, with tidings of the effects produced on the church there by
the first epistle; but was disappointed (1 Cor. 16:9; 2 Cor. 1:8; 2:12, 13). He
then left Troas and proceeded to Macedonia; and at Philippi, where he tarried,
he was soon joined by Titus (2 Cor. 7:6, 7), who brought him good news from
Corinth, and also by Timothy. Under the influence of the feelings awakened in
his mind by the favourable report which Titus brought back from Corinth, this
second epistle was written. It was probably written at Philippi, or, as some
think, Thessalonica, early in the year A.D. 58, and was sent to Corinth by
Titus. This letter he addresses not only to the church in Corinth, but also to
the saints in all Achaia, i.e., in Athens, Cenchrea, and other cities in Greece.
The contents of this epistle may be thus arranged:
(1.) Paul speaks of his spiritual labours and course of life, and expresses
his warm affection toward the Corinthians (2 Cor. 1-7).
(2.) He gives specific directions regarding the collection that was to be
made for their poor brethren in Judea (8; 9).
(3.) He defends his own apostolic claim (10-13), and justifies himself from
the charges and insinuations of the false teacher and his adherents.
This epistle, it has been well said, shows the individuallity of the apostle
more than any other. "Human weakness, spiritual strength, the deepest tenderness
of affection, wounded feeling, sternness, irony, rebuke, impassioned
self-vindication, humility, a just self-respect, zeal for the welfare of the
weak and suffering, as well as for the progress of the church of Christ and for
the spiritual advancement of its members, are all displayed in turn in the
course of his appeal."--Lias, Second Corinthians.
Of the effects produced on the Corinthian church by this epistle we have no
definite information. We know that Paul visited Corinth after he had written it
(Acts 20:2, 3), and that on that occasion he tarried there for three months. In
his letter to Rome, written at this time, he sent salutations from some of the
principal members of the church to the Romans.
Cormorant - (Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:17), Heb. shalak,
"plunging," or "darting down," (the Phalacrocorax carbo), ranked among the
"unclean" birds; of the same family group as the pelican. It is a "plunging"
bird, and is common on the coasts and the island seas of Palestine. Some think
the Hebrew word should be rendered "gannet" (Sula bassana, "the solan goose");
others that it is the "tern" or "sea swallow," which also frequents the coasts
of Palestine as well as the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan valley during several
months of the year. But there is no reason to depart from the ordinary
rendering.
In Isa. 34:11, Zeph. 2:14 (but in R.V., "pelican") the Hebrew word rendered
by this name is ka'ath. It is translated "pelican" (q.v.) in Ps. 102:6.
The word literally means the "vomiter," and the pelican is so called from its
vomiting the shells and other things which it has voraciously swallowed. (See PELICAN.)
Corn - The word so rendered (dagan) in Gen. 27:28,
37, Num. 18:27, Deut. 28:51, Lam. 2:12, is a general term representing all the
commodities we usually describe by the words corn, grain, seeds, peas, beans.
With this corresponds the use of the word in John 12:24.
In Gen. 41:35, 49, Prov. 11:26, Joel 2:24 ("wheat"), the word thus translated
(bar; i.e., "winnowed") means corn purified from chaff. With this corresponds
the use of the word in the New Testament (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17; Acts 7:12). In
Ps. 65:13 it means "growing corn."
In Gen. 42:1, 2, 19, Josh. 9:14, Neh. 10:31 ("victuals"), the word (sheber;
i.e., "broken," i.e., grist) denotes generally victuals, provisions, and corn as
a principal article of food.
From the time of Solomon, corn began to be exported from Palestine (Ezek.
27:17; Amos 8:5). "Plenty of corn" was a part of Issac's blessing conferred upon
Jacob (Gen. 27:28; comp. Ps. 65:13).
Cornelius - a centurion whose history is narrated in
Acts 10. He was a "devout man," and like the centurion of Capernaum, believed in
the God of Israel. His residence at Caesrea probably brought him into contact
with Jews who communicated to him their expectations regarding the Messiah; and
thus he was prepared to welcome the message Peter brought him. He became the
first fruit of the Gentile world to Christ. He and his family were baptized and
admitted into the Christian church (Acts 10:1, 44-48). (See CENTURION.)
Corner - The angle of a house (Job 1:19) or a street
(Prov. 7:8). "Corners" in Neh. 9:22 denotes the various districts of the
promised land allotted to the Israelites. In Num. 24:17, the "corners of Moab"
denotes the whole land of Moab. The "corner of a field" (Lev. 19:9; 23:22) is
its extreme part, which was not to be reaped. The Jews were prohibited from
cutting the "corners," i.e., the extremities, of the hair and whiskers running
round the ears (Lev. 19:27; 21:5). The "four corners of the earth" in Isa. 11:12
and Ezek. 7:2 denotes the whole land. The "corners of the streets" mentioned in
Matt. 6:5 means the angles where streets meet so as to form a square or place of
public resort.
The corner gate of Jerusalem (2 Kings 14:13; 2 Chr. 26:9) was on the
north-west side of the city.
Corner-stone (Job 38:6; Isa. 28:16), a block of great importance in binding
together the sides of a building. The "head of the corner" (Ps. 118:22, 23)
denotes the coping, the "coign of vantage", i.e., the topstone of a building.
But the word "corner stone" is sometimes used to denote some person of rank and
importance (Isa. 28:16). It is applied to our Lord, who was set in highest
honour (Matt. 21:42). He is also styled "the chief corner stone" (Eph. 2:20; 1
Pet. 2:6-8). When Zechariah (10:4), speaking of Judah, says, "Out of him came
forth the corner," he is probably to be understood as ultimately referring to
the Messiah as the "corner stone." (See TEMPLE, SOLOMON'S ¯T0003612.)
Cornet - Heb. shophar, "brightness," with reference
to the clearness of its sound (1 Chr. 15:28; 2 Chr. 15:14; Ps. 98:6; Hos. 5:8).
It is usually rendered in the Authorized Version "trumpet." It denotes the long
and straight horn, about eighteen inches long. The words of Joel, "Blow the
trumpet," literally, "Sound the cornet," refer to the festival which was the
preparation for the day of Atonement. In Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15, the word (keren)
so rendered is a curved horn. The word "cornet" in 2 Sam. 6:5 (Heb. mena'an'im,
occurring only here) was some kind of instrument played by being shaken like the
Egyptian sistrum, consisting of rings or bells hung loosely on iron rods.
Cotes - pens or enclosures for flocks (2 Chr. 32:28,
"cotes for flocks;" R.V., "flocks in folds").
Cottage - (1.) A booth in a vineyard (Isa. 1:8); a
temporary shed covered with leaves or straw to shelter the watchman that kept
the garden. These were slight fabrics, and were removed when no longer needed,
or were left to be blown down in winter (Job 27:18).
(2.) A lodging-place (rendered "lodge" in Isa. 1:8); a slighter structure
than the "booth," as the cucumber patch is more temporary than a vineyard (Isa.
24:20). It denotes a frail structure of boughs supported on a few poles, which
is still in use in the East, or a hammock suspended between trees, in which the
watchman was accustomed to sleep during summer.
(3.) In Zeph. 2:6 it is the rendering of the Hebrew keroth, which some
suppose to denote rather "pits" (R.V. marg., "caves") or "wells of water," such
as shepherds would sink.
Couch - (Gen. 49:4; 1 Chr. 5:1; Job 7:13; Ps. 6:6,
etc.), a seat for repose or rest. (See BED.)
Coulter - (1 Sam. 13:20, 21), an agricultural
instrument, elsewhere called "ploughshare" (Isa. 2:4; Micah 4:3; Joel 3:10). It
was the facing-piece of a plough, analogous to the modern coulter.
Council - spoken of counsellors who sat in public
trials with the governor of a province (Acts 25:12).
The Jewish councils were the Sanhedrim, or supreme council of the nation,
which had subordinate to it smaller tribunals (the "judgment," perhaps, in Matt.
5:21, 22) in the cities of Palestine (Matt. 10:17; Mark 13:9). In the time of
Christ the functions of the Sanhedrim were limited (John 16:2; 2 Cor. 11:24). In
Ps. 68:27 the word "council" means simply a company of persons. (R.V. marg.,
"company.")
In ecclesiastical history the word is used to denote an assembly of pastors
or bishops for the discussion and regulation of church affairs. The first of
these councils was that of the apostles and elders at Jerusalem, of which we
have a detailed account in Acts 15.
Counsellor - an adviser (Prov. 11:14; 15:22), a
king's state counsellor (2 Sam. 15:12). Used once of the Messiah (Isa. 9:6). In
Mark 15:43, Luke 23:50, the word probably means a member of the Jewish
Sanhedrim.
Courses - When David was not permitted to build the
temple, he proceeded, among the last acts of his life, with the assistance of
Zadok and Ahimelech, to organize the priestly and musical services to be
conducted in the house of God. (1.) He divided the priests into twenty-four
courses (1 Chr. 24:1-19), sixteen being of the house of Eleazar and eight of
that of Ithamar. Each course was under a head or chief, and ministered for a
week, the order being determined by lot. (2.) The rest of the 38,000 Levites
(23:4) were divided also into twenty-four courses, each to render some allotted
service in public worship: 4,000 in twenty-four courses were set apart as
singers and musicians under separate leaders (25); 4,000 as porters or keepers
of the doors and gates of the sanctuary (26:1-19); and 6,000 as officers and
judges to see to the administration of the law in all civil and ecclesiastical
matters (20-32).
This arrangement was re-established by Hezekiah (2 Chr. 31:2); and afterwards
the four sacerdotal courses which are said to have returned from the Captivity
were re-divided into the original number of twenty-four by Ezra (6:18).
Court - the enclosure of the tabernacle (Ex. 27:9-19;
40:8), of the temple (1 Kings 6:36), of a prison (Neh. 3:25), of a private house
(2 Sam. 17:18), and of a king's palace (2 Kings 20:4).
Covenant - a contract or agreement between two
parties. In the Old Testament the Hebrew word berith is always thus
translated. Berith is derived from a root which means "to cut," and hence
a covenant is a "cutting," with reference to the cutting or dividing of animals
into two parts, and the contracting parties passing between them, in making a
covenant (Gen. 15; Jer. 34:18, 19).
The corresponding word in the New Testament Greek is diatheke, which
is, however, rendered "testament" generally in the Authorized Version. It ought
to be rendered, just as the word berith of the Old Testament, "covenant."
This word is used (1) of a covenant or compact between man and man (Gen.
21:32), or between tribes or nations (1 Sam. 11:1; Josh. 9:6, 15). In entering
into a convenant, Jehovah was solemnly called on to witness the transaction
(Gen. 31:50), and hence it was called a "covenant of the Lord" (1 Sam. 20:8).
The marriage compact is called "the covenant of God" (Prov. 2:17), because the
marriage was made in God's name. Wicked men are spoken of as acting as if they
had made a "covenant with death" not to destroy them, or with hell not to devour
them (Isa. 28:15, 18).
(2.) The word is used with reference to God's revelation of himself in the
way of promise or of favour to men. Thus God's promise to Noah after the Flood
is called a covenant (Gen. 9; Jer. 33:20, "my covenant"). We have an account of
God's covernant with Abraham (Gen. 17, comp. Lev. 26:42), of the covenant of the
priesthood (Num. 25:12, 13; Deut. 33:9; Neh. 13:29), and of the covenant of
Sinai (Ex. 34:27, 28; Lev. 26:15), which was afterwards renewed at different
times in the history of Israel (Deut. 29; Josh. 1:24; 2 Chr. 15; 23; 29; 34;
Ezra 10; Neh. 9). In conformity with human custom, God's covenant is said to be
confirmed with an oath (Deut. 4:31; Ps. 89:3), and to be accompanied by a sign
(Gen. 9; 17). Hence the covenant is called God's "counsel," "oath," "promise"
(Ps. 89:3, 4; 105:8-11; Heb. 6:13-20; Luke 1:68-75). God's covenant consists
wholly in the bestowal of blessing (Isa. 59:21; Jer. 31:33, 34).
The term covenant is also used to designate the regular succession of day and
night (Jer. 33:20), the Sabbath (Ex. 31:16), circumcision (Gen. 17:9, 10), and
in general any ordinance of God (Jer. 34:13, 14).
A "covenant of salt" signifies an everlasting covenant, in the sealing or
ratifying of which salt, as an emblem of perpetuity, is used (Num. 18:19; Lev.
2:13; 2 Chr. 13:5).
COVENANT OF WORKS, the constitution under which Adam was placed at his
creation. In this covenant, (1.) The contracting parties were (a) God the moral
Governor, and (b) Adam, a free moral agent, and representative of all his
natural posterity (Rom. 5:12-19). (2.) The promise was "life" (Matt. 19:16, 17;
Gal. 3:12). (3.) The condition was perfect obedience to the law, the test in
this case being abstaining from eating the fruit of the "tree of knowledge,"
etc. (4.) The penalty was death (Gen. 2:16, 17).
This covenant is also called a covenant of nature, as made with man in his
natural or unfallen state; a covenant of life, because "life" was the promise
attached to obedience; and a legal covenant, because it demanded perfect
obedience to the law.
The "tree of life" was the outward sign and seal of that life which was
promised in the covenant, and hence it is usually called the seal of that
covenant.
This covenant is abrogated under the gospel, inasmuch as Christ has fulfilled
all its conditions in behalf of his people, and now offers salvation on the
condition of faith. It is still in force, however, as it rests on the immutable
justice of God, and is binding on all who have not fled to Christ and accepted
his righteousness.
CONVENANT OF GRACE, the eternal plan of redemption entered into by the three
persons of the Godhead, and carried out by them in its several parts. In it the
Father represented the Godhead in its indivisible sovereignty, and the Son his
people as their surety (John 17:4, 6, 9; Isa. 42:6; Ps. 89:3).
The conditions of this covenant were, (1.) On the part of the Father (a) all
needful preparation to the Son for the accomplishment of his work (Heb. 10:5;
Isa. 42:1-7); (b) support in the work (Luke 22:43); and (c) a glorious reward in
the exaltation of Christ when his work was done (Phil. 2:6-11), his investiture
with universal dominion (John 5:22; Ps. 110:1), his having the administration of
the covenant committed into his hands (Matt. 28:18; John 1:12; 17:2; Acts 2:33),
and in the final salvation of all his people (Isa. 35:10; 53:10, 11; Jer. 31:33;
Titus 1:2). (2.) On the part of the Son the conditions were (a) his becoming
incarnate (Gal. 4:4, 5); and (b) as the second Adam his representing all his
people, assuming their place and undertaking all their obligations under the
violated covenant of works; (c) obeying the law (Ps. 40:8; Isa. 42:21; John 9:4,
5), and (d) suffering its penalty (Isa. 53; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 3:13), in their
stead.
Christ, the mediator of, fulfils all its conditions in behalf of his people,
and dispenses to them all its blessings. In Heb. 8:6; 9:15; 12:24, this title is
given to Christ. (See DISPENSATION.)
Covering of the eyes - occurs only in Gen. 20:16. In
the Revised Version the rendering is "it (i.e., Abimelech's present of 1,000
pieces of silver to Abraham) is for thee a covering of the eyes." This has been
regarded as an implied advice to Sarah to conform to the custom of married
women, and wear a complete veil, covering the eyes as well as the rest of the
face.
Covetousness - a strong desire after the possession
of worldly things (Col. 3:5; Eph. 5:5; Heb. 13:5; 1 Tim. 6:9, 10; Matt. 6:20).
It assumes sometimes the more aggravated form of avarice, which is the mark of
cold-hearted worldliness.
Cow - A cow and her calf were not to be killed on the
same day (Lev. 22:28; Ex. 23:19; Deut. 22:6, 7). The reason for this enactment
is not given. A state of great poverty is described in the words of Isa.
7:21-25, where, instead of possessing great resources, a man shall depend for
the subsistence of himself and his family on what a single cow and two sheep
could yield.
Crane - (Isa. 38:14; Jer. 8:7). In both of these
passages the Authorized Version has reversed the Hebrew order of the words.
"Crane or swallow" should be "swallow or crane," as in the Revised Version. The
rendering is there correct. The Hebrew for crane is 'agur, the Grus
cincerea, a bird well known in Palestine. It is migratory, and is distinguished
by its loud voice, its cry being hoarse and melancholy.
Creation - "In the beginning" God created, i.e.,
called into being, all things out of nothing. This creative act on the part of
God was absolutely free, and for infinitely wise reasons. The cause of all
things exists only in the will of God. The work of creation is attributed (1) to
the Godhead (Gen. 1:1, 26); (2) to the Father (1 Cor. 8:6); (3) to the Son (John
1:3; Col. 1:16, 17); (4) to the Holy Spirit (Gen. 1:2; Job 26:13; Ps. 104:30).
The fact that he is the Creator distinguishes Jehovah as the true God (Isa.
37:16; 40:12, 13; 54:5; Ps. 96:5; Jer. 10:11, 12). The one great end in the work
of creation is the manifestation of the glory of the Creator (Col. 1:16; Rev.
4:11; Rom. 11:36). God's works, equally with God's word, are a revelation from
him; and between the teachings of the one and those of the other, when rightly
understood, there can be no contradiction.
Traditions of the creation, disfigured by corruptions, are found among the
records of ancient Eastern nations. (See ACCAD.)
A peculiar interest belongs to the traditions of the Accadians, the primitive
inhabitants of the plains of Lower Mesopotamia. These within the last few years
have been brought to light in the tablets and cylinders which have been rescued
from the long-buried palaces and temples of Assyria. They bear a remarkable
resemblance to the record of Genesis.
Creature - denotes the whole creation in Rom. 8:39;
Col. 1:15; Rev. 5:13; the whole human race in Mark 16:15; Rom. 8:19-22.
The living creatures in Ezek. 10:15, 17, are imaginary beings, symbols of the
Divine attributes and operations.
Crescens - increasing, probably one of the seventy
disciples of Christ. He was one of Paul's assistants (2 Tim. 4:10), probably a
Christian of Rome.
Crete - now called Candia, one of the largest islands
in the Meditterranean, about 140 miles long and 35 broad. It was at one time a
very prosperous and populous island, having a "hundred cities." The character of
the people is described in Paul's quotation from "one of their own poets"
(Epimenides) in his epistle to Titus: "The Cretans are alway liars, evil beasts,
slow bellies" (Titus 1:12). Jews from Crete were in Jerusalem on the day of
Pentecost (Acts 2:11). The island was visited by Paul on his voyage to Rome
(Acts 27). Here Paul subsequently left Titus (1:5) "to ordain elders." Some have
supposed that it was the original home of the Caphtorim (q.v.) or Philistines.
Crisping-pin - (Isa. 3:22; R.V., "satchel"), some
kind of female ornament, probably like the modern reticule. The Hebrew word
harit properly signifies pouch or casket or purse. It is rendered "bag"
in 2 Kings 5:23.
Crispus - curled, the chief of the synagogue at
Corinth (Acts 18:8). He was converted and, with his family, baptized by Paul (1
Cor. 1:14).
Cross - in the New Testament the instrument of
crucifixion, and hence used for the crucifixion of Christ itself (Eph. 2:16;
Heb. 12:2; 1 Cor. 1:17, 18; Gal. 5:11; 6:12, 14; Phil. 3:18). The word is also
used to denote any severe affliction or trial (Matt. 10:38; 16:24; Mark 8:34;
10:21).
The forms in which the cross is represented are these:
1. The crux simplex (I), a "single piece without transom."
2. The crux decussata (X), or St. Andrew's cross.
3. The crux commissa (T), or St. Anthony's cross.
4. The crux immissa (t), or Latin cross, which was the kind of cross on which
our Saviour died. Above our Lord's head, on the projecting beam, was placed the
"title." (See CRUCIFIXION.)
After the conversion, so-called, of Constantine the Great (B.C. 313), the
cross first came into use as an emblem of Christianity. He pretended at a
critical moment that he saw a flaming cross in the heavens bearing the
inscription, "In hoc signo vinces", i.e., By this sign thou shalt conquer, and
that on the following night Christ himself appeared and ordered him to take for
his standard the sign of this cross. In this form a new standard, called the
Labarum, was accordingly made, and borne by the Roman armies. It remained the
standard of the Roman army till the downfall of the Western empire. It bore the
embroidered monogram of Christ, i.e., the first two Greek letters of his name, X
and P (chi and rho), with the Alpha and Omega. (See A.)
Crown - (1.) Denotes the plate of gold in the front
of the high priest's mitre (Ex. 29:6; 39:30). The same Hebrew word so rendered
(ne'zer) denotes the diadem worn by Saul in battle (2 Sam. 1:10), and also that
which was used at the coronation of Joash (2 Kings 11:12).
(2.) The more general name in Hebrew for a crown is 'atarah, meaning a
"circlet." This is used of crowns and head ornaments of divers kinds, including
royal crowns. Such was the crown taken from the king of Ammon by David (2 Sam.
12:30). The crown worn by the Assyrian kings was a high mitre, sometimes adorned
with flowers. There are sculptures also representing the crowns worn by the
early Egyptian and Persian kings. Sometimes a diadem surrounded the royal
head-dress of two or three fillets. This probably signified that the wearer had
dominion over two or three countries. In Rev. 12:3; 13:1, we read of "many
crowns," a token of extended dominion.
(3.) The ancient Persian crown (Esther 1:11; 2:17; 6:8) was called
kether; i.e., "a chaplet," a high cap or tiara. Crowns were worn
sometimes to represent honour and power (Ezek. 23:42). They were worn at
marriages (Cant. 3:11; Isa. 61:10, "ornaments;" R.V., "a garland"), and at
feasts and public festivals.
The crown was among the Romans and Greeks a symbol of victory and reward. The
crown or wreath worn by the victors in the Olympic games was made of leaves of
the wild olive; in the Pythian games, of laurel; in the Nemean games, of
parsley; and in the Isthmian games, of the pine. The Romans bestowed the "civic
crown" on him who saved the life of a citizen. It was made of the leaves of the
oak. In opposition to all these fading crowns the apostles speak of the
incorruptible crown, the crown of life (James 1:12; Rev. 2:10) "that fadeth not
away" (1 Pet. 5:4, Gr. amarantinos; comp. 1:4). Probably the word "amaranth" was
applied to flowers we call "everlasting," the "immortal amaranth."
Crown of thorns - our Lord was crowned with a, in
mockery by the Romans (Matt. 27:29). The object of Pilate's guard in doing this
was probably to insult, and not specially to inflict pain. There is nothing to
show that the shrub thus used was, as has been supposed, the spina Christi,
which could have been easily woven into a wreath. It was probably the thorny
nabk, which grew abundantly round about Jerusalem, and whose flexible, pliant,
and round branches could easily be platted into the form of a crown. (See THORN
¯T0003642, 3.)
Crucifixion - a common mode of punishment among
heathen nations in early times. It is not certain whether it was known among the
ancient Jews; probably it was not. The modes of capital punishment according to
the Mosaic law were, by the sword (Ex. 21), strangling, fire (Lev. 20), and
stoning (Deut. 21).
This was regarded as the most horrible form of death, and to a Jew it would
acquire greater horror from the curse in Deut. 21:23.
This punishment began by subjecting the sufferer to scourging. In the case of
our Lord, however, his scourging was rather before the sentence was passed upon
him, and was inflicted by Pilate for the purpose, probably, of exciting pity and
procuring his escape from further punishment (Luke 23:22; John 19:1).
The condemned one carried his own cross to the place of execution, which was
outside the city, in some conspicuous place set apart for the purpose. Before
the nailing to the cross took place, a medicated cup of vinegar mixed with gall
and myrrh (the sopor) was given, for the purpose of deadening the pangs of the
sufferer. Our Lord refused this cup, that his senses might be clear (Matt.
27:34). The spongeful of vinegar, sour wine, posca, the common drink of the
Roman soldiers, which was put on a hyssop stalk and offered to our Lord in
contemptuous pity (Matt. 27:48; Luke 23:36), he tasted to allay the agonies of
his thirst (John 19:29). The accounts given of the crucifixion of our Lord are
in entire agreement with the customs and practices of the Roman in such cases.
He was crucified between two "malefactors" (Isa. 53:12; Luke 23:32), and was
watched by a party of four soldiers (John 19:23; Matt. 27:36, 54), with their
centurion. The "breaking of the legs" of the malefactors was intended to hasten
death, and put them out of misery (John 19:31); but the unusual rapidity of our
Lord's death (19:33) was due to his previous sufferings and his great mental
anguish. The omission of the breaking of his legs was the fulfilment of a type
(Ex. 12:46). He literally died of a broken heart, a ruptured heart, and hence
the flowing of blood and water from the wound made by the soldier's spear (John
19:34). Our Lord uttered seven memorable words from the cross, namely, (1) Luke
23:34; (2) 23:43; (3) John 19:26; (4) Matt. 27:46, Mark 15:34; (5) John 19:28;
(6) 19:30; (7) Luke 23:46.
Cruse - a utensil; a flask or cup for holding water
(1 Sam. 26:11, 12, 16; 1 Kings 19:6) or oil (1 Kings 17:12, 14, 16). In 1 Kings
14:3 the word there so rendered means properly a bottle, as in Jer. 19:1, 10, or
pitcher. In 2 Kings 2:20, a platter or flat metal saucer is intended. The Hebrew
word here used is translated "dish" in 21:13; "pans," in 2 Chr. 35:13; and
"bosom," in Prov. 19:24; 26:15 (R.V., "dish").
Crystal - (Ezek. 1:22, with the epithet "terrible,"
as dazzling the spectators with its brightness). The word occurs in Rev. 4:6;
21:11; 22:1. It is a stone of the flint order, the most refined kind of quartz.
The Greek word here used means also literally "ice." The ancients regarded the
crystal as only pure water congealed into extreme hardness by great length of
time.
Cubit - Heb. 'ammah; i.e., "mother of the arm," the
fore-arm, is a word derived from the Latin cubitus, the lower arm. It is
difficult to determine the exact length of this measure, from the uncertainty
whether it included the entire length from the elbow to the tip of the longest
finger, or only from the elbow to the root of the hand at the wrist. The
probability is that the longer was the original cubit. The common computation as
to the length of the cubit makes it 20.24 inches for the ordinary cubit, and
21.888 inches for the sacred one. This is the same as the Egyptian measurements.
A rod or staff the measure of a cubit is called in Judg. 3:16 gomed,
which literally means a "cut," something "cut off." The LXX. and Vulgate render
it "span."
Cuckoo - (Heb. shahaph), from a root meaning "to be
lean; slender." This bird is mentioned only in Lev. 11:16 and Deut. 14:15 (R.V.,
"seamew"). Some have interpreted the Hebrew word by "petrel" or "shearwater"
(Puffinus cinereus), which is found on the coast of Syria; others think it
denotes the "sea-gull" or "seamew." The common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) feeds on
reptiles and large insects. It is found in Asia and Africa as well as in Europe.
It only passes the winter in Palestine. The Arabs suppose it to utter the cry
Yakub_, and hence they call it _tir el-Yakub; i.e., "Jacob's bird."
Cucumbers - (Heb. plur. kishshuim; i.e., "hard,"
"difficult" of digestion, only in Num. 11:5). This vegetable is extensively
cultivated in the East at the present day, as it appears to have been in earlier
times among the Hebrews. It belongs to the gourd family of plants. In the East
its cooling pulp and juice are most refreshing. "We need not altogether wonder
that the Israelites, wearily marching through the arid solitudes of the Sinaitic
peninsula, thought more of the cucumbers and watermelons of which they had had
no lack in Egypt, rather than of the cruel bondage which was the price of these
luxuries." Groser's Scripture Natural History.
Isaiah speaks of a "lodge" (1:8; Heb. sukkah), i.e., a shed or edifice more
solid than a booth, for the protection throughout the season from spring to
autumn of the watchers in a "garden of cucumbers."
Cummin - (Heb. kammon; i.e., a "condiment"), the
fruit or seed of an umbelliferous plant, the Cuminum sativum, still extensively
cultivated in the East. Its fruit is mentioned in Isa. 28:25, 27. In the New
Testament it is mentioned in Matt. 23:23, where our Lord pronounces a "woe" on
the scribes and Pharisees, who were zealous in paying tithes of "mint and anise
and cummin," while they omitted the weightier matters of the law." "It is used
as a spice, both bruised, to mix with bread, and also boiled, in the various
messes and stews which compose an Oriental banquet." Tristram, Natural History.
Cup - a wine-cup (Gen. 40:11, 21), various forms of
which are found on Assyrian and Egyptian monuments. All Solomon's drinking
vessels were of gold (1 Kings 10: 21). The cups mentioned in the New Testament
were made after Roman and Greek models, and were sometimes of gold (Rev. 17:4).
The art of divining by means of a cup was practiced in Egypt (Gen. 44:2-17),
and in the East generally.
The "cup of salvation" (Ps. 116:13) is the cup of thanksgiving for the great
salvation. The "cup of consolation" (Jer. 16:7) refers to the custom of friends
sending viands and wine to console relatives in mourning (Prov. 31:6). In 1 Cor.
10:16, the "cup of blessing" is contrasted with the "cup of devils" (1 Cor.
10:21). The sacramental cup is the "cup of blessing," because of blessing
pronounced over it (Matt. 26:27; Luke 22:17). The "portion of the cup" (Ps.
11:6; 16:5) denotes one's condition of life, prosperous or adverse. A "cup" is
also a type of sensual allurement (Jer. 51:7; Prov. 23:31; Rev. 17:4). We read
also of the "cup of astonishment," the "cup of trembling," and the "cup of God's
wrath" (Ps. 75:8; Isa. 51:17; Jer. 25:15; Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:32; Rev. 16:19;
comp. Matt. 26:39, 42; John 18:11). The cup is also the symbol of death (Matt.
16:28; Mark 9:1; Heb. 2:9).
Cup-bearer - an officer of high rank with Egyptian,
Persian, Assyrian, and Jewish monarchs. The cup-bearer of the king of Egypt is
mentioned in connection with Joseph's history (Gen. 40:1-21; 41:9). Rabshakeh
(q.v.) was cup-bearer in the Assyrian court (2 Kings 18:17). Nehemiah filled
this office to the king of Persia (Neh. 1:11). We read also of Solomon's
cup-bearers (1 Kings 10:5; 2 Chr. 9:4).
Curious arts - (Acts 19:19), magical arts; jugglery
practised by the Ephesian conjurers. Ephesus was noted for its wizard and the
"Ephesian spells;" i.e., charms or scraps of parchment written over with certain
formula, which were worn as a safeguard against all manner of evils. The more
important and powerful of these charms were written out in books which
circulated among the exorcists, and were sold at a great price.
Curse - denounced by God against the serpent (Gen.
3:14), and against Cain (4:11). These divine maledictions carried their effect
with them. Prophetical curses were sometimes pronounced by holy men (Gen. 9:25;
49:7; Deut. 27:15; Josh. 6:26). Such curses are not the consequence of passion
or revenge, they are predictions.
No one on pain of death shall curse father or mother (Ex. 21:17), nor the
prince of his people (22:28), nor the deaf (Lev. 19:14). Cursing God or
blaspheming was punishable by death (Lev. 24:10-16). The words "curse God and
die" (R.V., "renounce God and die"), used by Job's wife (Job 2:9), have been
variously interpreted. Perhaps they simply mean that as nothing but death was
expected, God would by this cursing at once interpose and destroy Job, and so
put an end to his sufferings.
Curtain - (1.) Ten curtains, each twenty-eight cubits
long and four wide, made of fine linen, also eleven made of goat's hair, covered
the tabernacle (Ex. 26:1-13; 36:8-17).
(2.) The sacred curtain, separating the holy of holies from the sanctuary, is
designated by a different Hebrew word (peroketh). It is described as a "veil of
blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen of cunning work" (Ex.
26:31; Lev. 16:2; Num. 18:7).
(3.) "Stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain" (Isa. 40:22), is an expression
used with reference to the veil or awning which Orientals spread for a screen
over their courts in summer. According to the prophet, the heavens are spread
over our heads as such an awning. Similar expressions are found in Ps. 104:2l;
comp. Isa. 44:24; Job 9:8.
Cush - black. (1.) A son, probably the eldest, of
Ham, and the father of Nimrod (Gen. 10:8; 1 Chr. 1:10). From him the land of
Cush seems to have derived its name. The question of the precise locality of the
land of Cush has given rise to not a little controversy. The second river of
Paradise surrounded the whole land of Cush (Gen. 2:13, R.V.). The term Cush is
in the Old Testament generally applied to the countries south of the Israelites.
It was the southern limit of Egypt (Ezek. 29:10, A.V. "Ethiopia," Heb. Cush),
with which it is generally associated (Ps. 68:31; Isa. 18:1; Jer. 46:9, etc.).
It stands also associated with Elam (Isa. 11:11), with Persia (Ezek. 38:5), and
with the Sabeans (Isa. 45:14). From these facts it has been inferred that Cush
included Arabia and the country on the west coast of the Red Sea. Rawlinson
takes it to be the country still known as Khuzi-stan, on the east side of the
Lower Tigris. But there are intimations which warrant the conclusion that there
was also a Cush in Africa, the Ethiopia (so called by the Greeks) of Africa.
Ezekiel speaks (29:10; comp. 30:4-6) of it as lying south of Egypt. It was the
country now known to us as Nubia and Abyssinia (Isa. 18:1; Zeph. 3:10, Heb.
Cush). In ancient Egyptian inscriptions Ethiopia is termed Kesh. The
Cushites appear to have spread along extensive tracts, stretching from the Upper
Nile to the Euphrates and Tigris. At an early period there was a stream of
migration of Cushites "from Ethiopia, properly so called, through Arabia,
Babylonia, and Persia, to Western India." The Hamite races, soon after their
arrival in Africa, began to spread north, east, and west. Three branches of the
Cushite or Ethiopian stock, moving from Western Asia, settled in the regions
contiguous to the Persian Gulf. One branch, called the Cossaeans, settled in the
mountainous district on the east of the Tigris, known afterwards as Susiana;
another occupied the lower regions of the Euphrates and the Tigris; while a
third colonized the southern shores and islands of the gulf, whence they
afterwards emigrated to the Mediterranean and settled on the coast of Palestine
as the Phoenicians. Nimrod was a great Cushite chief. He conquered the
Accadians, a Tauranian race, already settled in Mesopotamia, and founded his
kingdom, the Cushites mingling with the Accads, and so forming the Chaldean
nation.
(2.) A Benjamite of this name is mentioned in the title of Ps. 7. "Cush was
probably a follower of Saul, the head of his tribe, and had sought the
friendship of David for the purpose of 'rewarding evil to him that was at peace
with him.'"
Cushan - probably a poetic or prolonged name of the
land of Cush, the Arabian Cush (Hab. 3:7). Some have, however, supposed this to
be the same as Chushan-rishathaim (Judg. 3:8, 10), i.e., taking the latter part
of the name as a title or local appellation, Chushan "of the two iniquities" (=
oppressing Israel, and provoking them to idolatry), a Mesopotamian king,
identified by Rawlinson with Asshur-ris-ilim (the father of Tiglathpileser I.);
but incorrectly, for the empire of Assyria was not yet founded. He held Israel
in bondage for eight years.
Cushite - (1.) The messenger sent by Joab to David to
announce his victory over Absalom (2 Sam. 18:32).
(2.) The father of Shelemiah (Jer. 36:14).
(3.) Son of Gedaliah, and father of the prophet Zephaniah (1:1).
(4.) Moses married a Cushite woman (Num. 12:1). From this circumstance some
have supposed that Zipporah was meant, and hence that Midian was Cush.
Custom - a tax imposed by the Romans. The
tax-gatherers were termed publicans (q.v.), who had their stations at the gates
of cities, and in the public highways, and at the place set apart for that
purpose, called the "receipt of custom" (Matt.9: 9; Mark 2:14), where they
collected the money that was to be paid on certain goods (Matt.17:25). These
publicans were tempted to exact more from the people than was lawful, and were,
in consequence of their extortions, objects of great hatred. The Pharisees would
have no intercourse with them (Matt.5:46, 47; 9:10, 11).
A tax or tribute (q.v.) of half a shekel was annually paid by every adult Jew
for the temple. It had to be paid in Jewish coin (Matt. 22:17-19; Mark 12:14,
15). Money-changers (q.v.) were necessary, to enable the Jews who came up to
Jerusalem at the feasts to exchange their foreign coin for Jewish money; but as
it was forbidden by the law to carry on such a traffic for emolument (Deut.
23:19, 20), our Lord drove them from the temple (Matt. 21:12: Mark 11:15).
Cuthah - one of the Babylonian cities or districts
from which Shalmaneser transplanted certain colonists to Samaria (2 Kings
17:24). Some have conjectured that the "Cutheans" were identical with the
"Cossaeans" who inhabited the hill-country to the north of the river Choaspes.
Cuthah is now identified with Tell Ibrahim, 15 miles north-east of Babylon.
Cutting - the flesh in various ways was an idolatrous
practice, a part of idol-worship (Deut. 14:1; 1 Kings 18:28). The Israelites
were commanded not to imitate this practice (Lev. 19:28; 21:5; Deut. 14:1). The
tearing of the flesh from grief and anguish of spirit in mourning for the dead
was regarded as a mark of affection (Jer. 16:6; 41:5; 48:37).
Allusions are made in Revelation (13:16; 17:5; 19:20) to the practice of
printing marks on the body, to indicate allegiance to a deity. We find also
references to it, through in a different direction, by Paul (Gal. 6; 7) and by
Ezekiel (9:4). (See HAIR.)
Cymbals - (Heb. tzeltzelim, from a root meaning to
"tinkle"), musical instruments, consisting of two convex pieces of brass one
held in each hand, which were clashed together to produce a loud clanging sound;
castanets; "loud cymbals." "Highsounding cymbals" consisted of two larger
plates, one held also in each hand (2 Sam. 6:5; Ps. 150:5; 1 Chr. 13:8; 15:16,
19, 28; 1 Cor. 13:1).
Cypress - (Heb. tirzah, "hardness"), mentioned only
in Isa. 44:14 (R.V., "holm tree"). The oldest Latin version translates this word
by ilex, i.e., the evergreen oak, which may possibly have been the tree
intended; but there is great probability that our Authorized Version is correct
in rendering it "cypress." This tree grows abundantly on the mountains of
Hermon. Its wood is hard and fragrant, and very durable. Its foliage is dark and
gloomy. It is an evergreen (Cupressus sempervirens). "Throughout the East it is
used as a funereal tree; and its dark, tall, waving plumes render it peculiarly
appropriate among the tombs."
Cyprus - one of the largest islands of the
Mediterranean, about 148 miles long and 40 broad. It is distant about 60 miles
from the Syrian coast. It was the "Chittim" of the Old Testament (Num. 24:24).
The Greek colonists gave it the name of Kypros, from the cyprus, i.e., the henna
(see CAMPHIRE ¯T0000701), which grew on this island. It was originally inhabited
by Phoenicians. In B.C. 477 it fell under the dominion of the Greeks; and became
a Roman province B.C. 58. In ancient times it was a centre of great commercial
activity. Corn and wine and oil were produced here in the greatest perfection.
It was rich also in timber and in mineral wealth.
It is first mentioned in the New Testament (Acts 4:36) as the native place of
Barnabas. It was the scene of Paul's first missionary labours (13:4-13), when he
and Barnabas and John Mark were sent forth by the church of Antioch. It was
afterwards visited by Barnabas and Mark alone (15:39). Mnason, an "old
disciple," probaly one of the converts of the day of Pentecost belonging to this
island, is mentioned (21:16). It is also mentioned in connection with the
voyages of Paul (Acts 21:3; 27:4). After being under the Turks for three hundred
years, it was given up to the British Government in 1878.
Cyrene - a city (now Tripoli) in Upper Libya, North
Africa, founded by a colony of Greeks (B.C. 630). It contained latterly a large
number of Jews, who were introduced into the city by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus,
because he thought they would contribute to the security of the place. They
increased in number and influence; and we are thus prepared for the frequent
references to them in connection with the early history of Christianity. Simon,
who bore our Lord's cross, was a native of this place (Matt. 27:32; Mark 15:21).
Jews from Cyrene were in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts 2:10); and Cyrenian Jews
had a synagogue at Jerusalem (6:9). Converts belonging to Cyrene contributed to
the formation of the first Gentile church at Antioch (11:20). Among "the
prophets and teachers" who "ministered to the Lord at Antioch" was Lucius of
Cyrene (13:1).
Cyrenius - the Grecized form of Quirinus. His full
name was Publius Sulpicius Quirinus. Recent historical investigation has proved
that Quirinus was governor of Cilicia, which was annexed to Syria at the time of
our Lord's birth. Cilicia, which he ruled, being a province of Syria, he is
called the governor, which he was de jure, of Syria. Some ten years afterwards
he was appointed governor of Syria for the second time. During his tenure of
office, at the time of our Lord's birth (Luke 2:2), a "taxing" (R.V.,
"enrolment;" i.e., a registration) of the people was "first made;" i.e., was
made for the first time under his government. (See TAXING.)
Cyrus - (Heb. Ko'resh), the celebrated "King of
Persia" (Elam) who was conqueror of Babylon, and issued the decree of liberation
to the Jews (Ezra 1:1, 2). He was the son of Cambyses, the prince of Persia, and
was born about B.C. 599. In the year B.C. 559 he became king of Persia, the
kingdom of Media being added to it partly by conquest. Cyrus was a great
military leader, bent on universal conquest. Babylon fell before his army (B.C.
538) on the night of Belshazzar's feast (Dan. 5:30), and then the ancient
dominion of Assyria was also added to his empire (cf., "Go up, O Elam",
Isa.21:2).
Hitherto the great kings of the earth had only oppressed the Jews. Cyrus was
to them as a "shepherd" (Isa. 44:28; 45:1). God employed him in doing service to
his ancient people. He may posibly have gained, through contact with the Jews,
some knowledge of their religion.
The "first year of Cyrus" (Ezra 1:1) is not the year of his elevation to
power over the Medes, nor over the Persians, nor the year of the fall of
Babylon, but the year succeeding the two years during which "Darius the Mede"
was viceroy in Babylon after its fall. At this time only (B.C. 536) Cyrus became
actual king over Palestine, which became a part of his Babylonian empire. The
edict of Cyrus for the rebuilding of Jerusalem marked a great epoch in the
history of the Jewish people (2 Chr. 36:22, 23; Ezra 1:1-4; 4:3; 5:13-17;
6:3-5).
This decree was discovered "at Achmetha [R.V. marg., "Ecbatana"], in the
palace that is in the province of the Medes" (Ezra 6:2). A chronicle drawn up
just after the conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus, gives the history of the reign of
Nabonidus (Nabunahid), the last king of Babylon, and of the fall of the
Babylonian empire. In B.C. 538 there was a revolt in Southern Babylonia, while
the army of Cyrus entered the country from the north. In June the Babylonian
army was completely defeated at Opis, and immediately afterwards Sippara opened
its gates to the conqueror. Gobryas (Ugbaru), the governor of Kurdistan, was
then sent to Babylon, which surrendered "without fighting," and the daily
services in the temples continued without a break. In October, Cyrus himself
arrived, and proclaimed a general amnesty, which was communicated by Gobryas to
"all the province of Babylon," of which he had been made governor. Meanwhile,
Nabonidus, who had concealed himself, was captured, but treated honourably; and
when his wife died, Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, conducted the funeral. Cyrus now
assumed the title of "king of Babylon," claimed to be the descendant of the
ancient kings, and made rich offerings to the temples. At the same time he
allowed the foreign populations who had been deported to Babylonia to return to
their old homes, carrying with them the images of their gods. Among these
populations were the Jews, who, as they had no images, took with them the sacred
vessels of the temple.
Daberath - pasture, a Levitical town of Issachar
(Josh. 19:12; 21:28), near the border of Zebulum. It is the modern small village
of Deburich, at the base of Mount Tabor. Tradition has incorrectly made it the
scene of the miracle of the cure of the lunatic child (Matt. 17:14).
Daemon - the Greek form, rendered "devil" in the
Authorized Version of the New Testament. Daemons are spoken of as spiritual
beings (Matt. 8:16; 10:1; 12:43-45) at enmity with God, and as having a certain
power over man (James 2:19; Rev. 16:14). They recognize our Lord as the Son of
God (Matt. 8:20; Luke 4:41). They belong to the number of those angels that
"kept not their first estate," "unclean spirits," "fallen angels," the angels of
the devil (Matt. 25:41; Rev. 12:7-9). They are the "principalities and powers"
against which we must "wrestle" (Eph. 6:12).
Daemoniac - one "possessed with a devil." In the days
of our Lord and his apostles, evil spirits, "daemons," were mysteriously
permitted by God to exercise an influence both over the souls and bodies of men,
inflicting dumbness (Matt. 9:32), blindness (12:22), epilepsy (Mark 9:17-27),
insanity (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:1-5). Daemoniacs are frequently distinguished from
those who are afflicted with ordinary bodily maladies (Mark 1:32; 16:17, 18;
Luke 6:17, 18). The daemons speak in their own persons (Matt. 8:29; Mark 1:23,
24; 5:7). This influence is clearly distinguished from the ordinary power of
corruption and of temptation over men. In the daemoniac his personality seems to
be destroyed, and his actions, words, and even thoughts to be overborne by the
evil spirit (Mark, l.c.; Acts 19:15).
Dagon - little fish; diminutive from dag = a fish,
the fish-god; the national god of the Philistines (Judg. 16:23). This idol had
the body of a fish with the head and hands of a man. It was an
Assyrio-Babylonian deity, the worship of which was introduced among the
Philistines through Chaldea. The most famous of the temples of Dagon were at
Gaza (Judg. 16:23-30) and Ashdod (1 Sam. 5:1-7). (See FISH.)
Dagon's house - (1 Sam. 5:2), or Beth-dagon, as
elsewhere rendered (Josh.15: 41; 19:27), was the sanctuary or temple of Dagon.
The Beth-dagon of Josh. 15:41 was one of the cities of the tribe of Judah, in
the lowland or plain which stretches westward. It has not been identified.
The Beth-dagon of Josh. 19:27 was one of the border cities of Asher.
That of 1 Chr. 10:10 was in the western half-tribe of Manasseh, where the
Philistines, after their victory at Gilboa, placed Saul's head in the temple of
their god. (Comp. 1 Sam. 31:8-13).
Daily sacrifice - (Dan. 8:12; 11:31; 12:11), a burnt
offering of two lambs of a year old, which were daily sacrificed in the name of
the whole Israelitish people upon the great altar, the first at dawn of day, and
the second at evening (Dan. 9:21), or more correctly, "between the two
evenings." (See SACRIFICE.)
Dale, the king's - the name of a valley, the
alternative for "the valley of Shaveh" (q.v.), near the Dead Sea, where the king
of Sodom met Abraham (Gen. 14:17). Some have identified it with the southern
part of the valley of Jehoshaphat, where Absalom reared his family monument (2
Sam. 18:18).
Dalmanutha - a place on the west of the Sea of
Galilee, mentioned only in Mark 8:10. In the parallel passage it is said that
Christ came "into the borders of Magdala" (Matt. 15:39). It is plain, then, that
Dalmanutha was near Magdala, which was probably the Greek name of one of the
many Migdols (i.e., watch-towers) on the western side of the lake of Gennesaret.
It has been identified in the ruins of a village about a mile from Magdala, in
the little open valley of 'Ain-el-Barideh, "the cold fountain," called
el-Mejdel, possibly the "Migdal-el" of Josh. 19:38.
Dalmatia - a mountainous country on the eastern shore
of the Adriatic, a part of the Roman province of Illyricum. It still bears its
ancient name. During Paul's second imprisonment at Rome, Titus left him to visit
Dalmatia (2 Tim. 4:10) for some unknown purpose. Paul had himself formerly
preached in that region (Rom. 15:19).
The present Emperor of Austria bears, among his other titles, that of "King
of Dalmatia."
Damaris - a heifer, an Athenian woman converted to
Christianity under the preaching of Paul (Acts 17:34). Some have supposed that
she may have been the wife of Dionysius the Areopagite.
Damascus - activity, the most ancient of Oriental
cities; the capital of Syria (Isa. 7:8; 17:3); situated about 133 miles to the
north of Jerusalem. Its modern name is Esh-Sham; i.e., "the East."
The situation of this city is said to be the most beautiful of all Western
Asia. It is mentioned among the conquests of the Egyptian king Thothmes III.
(B.C. 1500), and in the Amarna tablets (B.C. 1400).
It is first mentioned in Scripture in connection with Abraham's victory over
the confederate kings under Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:15). It was the native place
of Abraham's steward (15:2). It is not again noticed till the time of David,
when "the Syrians of Damascus came to succour Hadadezer" (q.v.), 2 Sam. 8:5; 1
Chr. 18:5. In the reign of Solomon, Rezon became leader of a band who revolted
from Hadadezer (1 Kings 11:23), and betaking themselves to Damascus, settled
there and made their leader king. There was a long war, with varying success,
between the Israelites and Syrians, who at a later period became allies of
Israel against Judah (2 Kings 15:37).
The Syrians were at length subdued by the Assyrians, the city of Damascus was
taken and destroyed, and the inhabitants carried captive into Assyria (2 Kings
16:7-9; comp. Isa. 7:8). In this, prophecy was fulfilled (Isa. 17:1; Amos 1:4;
Jer. 49:24). The kingdom of Syria remained a province of Assyria till the
capture of Nineveh by the Medes (B.C. 625), when it fell under the conquerors.
After passing through various vicissitudes, Syria was invaded by the Romans
(B.C. 64), and Damascus became the seat of the government of the province. In
A.D. 37 Aretas, the king of Arabia, became master of Damascus, having driven
back Herod Antipas.
This city is memorable as the scene of Saul's conversion (Acts 9:1-25). The
street called "Straight," in which Judas lived, in whose house Saul was found by
Ananias, is known by the name Sultany, or "Queen's Street." It is the principal
street of the city. Paul visited Damascus again on his return from Arabia (Gal.
1:16, 17). Christianity was planted here as a centre (Acts 9:20), from which it
spread to the surrounding regions.
In A.D. 634 Damascus was conquered by the growing Mohammedan power. In A.D.
1516 it fell under the dominion of the Turks, its present rulers. It is now the
largest city in Asiatic Turkey. Christianity has again found a firm footing
within its walls.
Damnation - in Rom. 13:2, means "condemnation," which
comes on those who withstand God's ordinance of magistracy. This sentence of
condemnation comes not from the magistrate, but from God, whose authority is
thus resisted.
In 1 Cor. 11:29 (R.V., "judgment") this word means condemnation, in the sense
of exposure to severe temporal judgements from God, as the following verse
explains.
In Rom. 14:23 the word "damned" means "condemned" by one's own conscience, as
well as by the Word of God. The apostle shows here that many things which are
lawful are not expedient; and that in using our Christian liberty the question
should not simply be, Is this course I follow lawful? but also, Can I follow it
without doing injury to the spiritual interests of a brother in Christ? He that
"doubteth", i.e., is not clear in his conscience as to "meats", will violate his
conscience "if he eat," and in eating is condemned; and thus one ought not so to
use his liberty as to lead one who is "weak" to bring upon himself this
condemnation.
Dan - a judge. (1.) The fifth son of Jacob. His
mother was Bilhah, Rachel's maid (Gen. 30:6, "God hath judged me", Heb.
dananni). The blessing pronounced on him by his father was, "Dan shall judge his
people" (49:16), probably in allusion to the judgeship of Samson, who was of the
tribe of Dan.
The tribe of Dan had their place in the march through the wilderness on the
north side of the tabernacle (Num. 2:25, 31; 10:25). It was the last of the
tribes to receive a portion in the Land of Promise. Its position and extent are
described in Josh. 19:40-48.
The territory of Dan extended from the west of that of Ephraim and Benjamin
to the sea. It was a small territory, but was very fertile. It included in it,
among others, the cities of Lydda, Ekron, and Joppa, which formed its northern
boundary. But this district was too limited. "Squeezed into the narrow strip
between the mountains and the sea, its energies were great beyond its numbers."
Being pressed by the Amorites and the Philistines, whom they were unable to
conquer, they longed for a wider space. They accordingly sent out five spies
from two of their towns, who went north to the sources of the Jordan, and
brought back a favourable report regarding that region. "Arise," they said, "be
not slothful to go, and to possess the land," for it is "a place where there is
no want of any thing that is in the earth" (Judg. 18:10). On receiving this
report, 600 Danites girded on their weapons of war, and taking with them their
wives and their children, marched to the foot of Hermon, and fought against
Leshem, and took it from the Sidonians, and dwelt therein, and changed the name
of the conquered town to Dan (Josh. 19:47). This new city of Dan became to them
a new home, and was wont to be spoken of as the northern limit of Palestine, the
length of which came to be denoted by the expression "from Dan to Beersheba",
i.e., about 144 miles.
"But like Lot under a similar temptation, they seem to have succumbed to the
evil influences around them, and to have sunk down into a condition of
semi-heathenism from which they never emerged. The mounds of ruins which mark
the site of the city show that it covered a considerable extent of ground. But
there remains no record of any noble deed wrought by the degenerate tribe. Their
name disappears from the roll-book of the natural and the spiritual Israel.",
Manning's Those Holy Fields.
This old border city was originally called Laish. Its modern name is Tell
el-Kady, "Hill of the Judge." It stands about four miles below Caesarea
Philippi, in the midst of a region of surpassing richness and beauty.
(2.) This name occurs in Ezek 27:19, Authorize Version; but the words there,
"Dan also," should be simply, as in the Revised Version, "Vedan," an Arabian
city, from which various kinds of merchandise were brought to Tyre. Some suppose
it to have been the city of Aden in Arabia. (See MAHANEH-DAN ¯T0002375.)
Dance - found in Judg. 21:21, 23; Ps. 30:11; 149:3;
150:4; Jer. 31:4, 13, etc., as the translation of hul, which points to
the whirling motion of Oriental sacred dances. It is the rendering of a word
(rakad') which means to skip or leap for joy, in Eccl. 3:4; Job 21:11; Isa.
13:21, etc.
In the New Testament it is in like manner the translation of different Greek
words, circular motion (Luke 15:25); leaping up and down in concert (Matt.
11:17), and by a single person (Matt. 14:6).
It is spoken of as symbolical of rejoicing (Eccl. 3:4. Comp. Ps. 30:11; Matt.
11: 17). The Hebrews had their sacred dances expressive of joy and thanksgiving,
when the performers were usually females (Ex. 15:20; 1 Sam. 18:6).
The ancient dance was very different from that common among Western nations.
It was usually the part of the women only (Ex. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; comp. 5:1).
Hence the peculiarity of David's conduct in dancing before the ark of the Lord
(2 Sam. 6:14). The women took part in it with their timbrels. Michal should, in
accordance with the example of Miriam and others, have herself led the female
choir, instead of keeping aloof on the occasion and "looking through the
window." David led the choir "uncovered", i.e., wearing only the ephod or linen
tunic. He thought only of the honour of God, and forgot himself.
From being reserved for occasions of religious worship and festivity, it came
gradually to be practised in common life on occasions of rejoicing (Jer. 31:4).
The sexes among the Jews always danced separately. The daughter of Herodias
danced alone (Matt. 14:6).
Daniel - God is my judge, or judge of God. (1.)
David's second son, "born unto him in Hebron, of Abigail the Carmelitess" (1
Chr. 3:1). He is called also Chileab (2 Sam. 3:3).
(2.) One of the four great prophets, although he is not once spoken of in the
Old Testament as a prophet. His life and prophecies are recorded in the Book of
Daniel. He was descended from one of the noble families of Judah (Dan. 1:3), and
was probably born in Jerusalem about B.C. 623, during the reign of Josiah. At
the first deportation of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar (the kingdom of Israel had
come to an end nearly a century before), or immediately after his victory over
the Egyptians at the second battle of Carchemish, in the fourth year of the
reign of Jehoiakim (B.C. 606), Daniel and other three noble youths were carried
off to Babylon, along with part of the vessels of the temple. There he was
obliged to enter into the service of the king of Babylon, and in accordance with
the custom of the age received the Chaldean name of Belteshazzar, i.e., "prince
of Bel," or "Bel protect the king!" His residence in Babylon was very probably
in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, now identified with a mass of shapeless mounds
called the Kasr, on the right bank of the river.
His training in the schools of the wise men in Babylon (Dan. 1:4) was to fit
him for service to the empire. He was distinguished during this period for his
piety and his stict observance of the Mosaic law (1:8-16), and gained the
confidence and esteem of those who were over him. His habit of attention gained
during his education in Jerusalem enabled him soon to master the wisdom and
learning of the Chaldeans, and even to excel his compeers.
At the close of his three years of discipline and training in the royal
schools, Daniel was distinguished for his proficiency in the "wisdom" of his
day, and was brought out into public life. He soon became known for his skill in
the interpretation of dreams (1:17; 2:14), and rose to the rank of governor of
the province of Babylon, and became "chief of the governors" (Chald. Rab-signin)
over all the wise men of Babylon. He made known and also interpreted
Nebuchadnezzar's dream; and many years afterwards, when he was now an old man,
amid the alarm and consternation of the terrible night of Belshazzar's impious
feast, he was called in at the instance of the queen-mother (perhaps Nitocris,
the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar) to interpret the mysterious handwriting on the
wall. He was rewarded with a purple robe and elevation to the rank of "third
ruler." The place of "second ruler" was held by Belshazzar as associated with
his father, Nabonidus, on the throne (5:16). Daniel interpreted the handwriting,
and "in that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain."
After the taking of Babylon, Cyrus, who was now master of all Asia from India
to the Dardanelles, placed Darius (q.v.), a Median prince, on the throne, during
the two years of whose reign Daniel held the office of first of the "three
presidents" of the empire, and was thus practically at the head of affairs, no
doubt interesting himself in the prospects of the captive Jews (Dan. 9), whom he
had at last the happiness of seeing restored to their own land, although he did
not return with them, but remained still in Babylon. His fidelity to God exposed
him to persecution, and he was cast into a den of lions, but was miraculously
delivered; after which Darius issued a decree enjoining reverence for "the God
of Daniel" (6:26). He "prospered in the reign of Darius, and in the reign of
Cyrus the Persian," whom he probably greatly influenced in the matter of the
decree which put an end to the Captivity (B.C. 536).
He had a series of prophetic visions vouch-safed to him which opened up the
prospect of a glorious future for the people of God, and must have imparted
peace and gladness to his spirit in his old age as he waited on at his post till
the "end of the days." The time and circumstances of his death are not recorded.
He probably died at Susa, about eighty-five years of age.
Ezekiel, with whom he was contemporary, mentions him as a pattern of
righteousness (14:14, 20) and wisdom (28:3). (See NEBUCHADNEZZAR.)
Daniel, Book of - is ranked by the Jews in that
division of their Bible called the Hagiographa (Heb. Khethubim). (See BIBLE.)
It consists of two distinct parts. The first part, consisting of the first six
chapters, is chiefly historical; and the second part, consisting of the
remaining six chapters, is chiefly prophetical.
The historical part of the book treats of the period of the Captivity. Daniel
is "the historian of the Captivity, the writer who alone furnishes any series of
events for that dark and dismal period during which the harp of Israel hung on
the trees that grew by the Euphrates. His narrative may be said in general to
intervene between Kings and Chronicles on the one hand and Ezra on the other, or
(more strictly) to fill out the sketch which the author of the Chronicles gives
in a single verse in his last chapter: 'And them that had escaped from the sword
carried he [i.e., Nebuchadnezzar] away to Babylon; where they were servants to
him and his sons until the reign of the kingdom of Persia'" (2 Chr. 36:20).
The prophetical part consists of three visions and one lengthened prophetical
communication.
The genuineness of this book has been much disputed, but the arguments in its
favour fully establish its claims. (1.) We have the testimony of Christ (Matt.
24:15; 25:31; 26:64) and his apostles (1 Cor. 6:2; 2 Thess. 2:3) for its
authority; and (2) the important testimony of Ezekiel (14:14, 20; 28:3). (3.)
The character and records of the book are also entirely in harmony with the
times and circumstances in which the author lived. (4.) The linguistic character
of the book is, moreover, just such as might be expected. Certain portions (Dan.
2:4; 7) are written in the Chaldee language; and the portions written in Hebrew
are in a style and form having a close affinity with the later books of the Old
Testament, especially with that of Ezra. The writer is familiar both with the
Hebrew and the Chaldee, passing from the one to the other just as his subject
required. This is in strict accordance with the position of the author and of
the people for whom his book was written. That Daniel is the writer of this book
is also testified to in the book itself (7:1, 28; 8:2; 9:2; 10:1, 2; 12:4, 5).
(See BELSHAZZAR.)
Dan-jaan - woodland Dan, a place probably somewhere
in the direction of Dan, near the sources of the Jordan (2 Sam. 24:6). The LXX.
and the Vulgate read "Dan-ja'ar", i.e., "Dan in the forest."
Dannah - murmuring, a city (Josh. 15:49) in the
mountains of Judah about 8 miles south-west of Hebron.
Darda - pearl of wisdom, one of the four who were
noted for their wisdom, but whom Solomon excelled (1 Kings 4:31).
Daric - in the Revised Version of 1 Chr. 29:7; Ezra
2:69; 8:27; Neh. 7:70-72, where the Authorized Version has "dram." It is the
rendering of the Hebrew darkemon and the Greek dareikos. It was a gold coin,
bearing the figure of a Persian King with his crown and armed with bow and
arrow. It was current among the Jews after their return from Babylon, i.e.,
while under the Persian domination. It weighed about 128 grains troy, and was of
the value of about one guinea or rather more of our money. It is the first coin
mentioned in Scripture, and is the oldest that history makes known to us.
Darius - the holder or supporter, the name of several
Persian kings. (1.) Darius the Mede (Dan. 11:1), "the son of Ahasuerus, of the
seed of the Medes" (9:1). On the death of Belshazzar the Chaldean he "received
the kingdom" of Babylon as viceroy from Cyrus. During his brief reign (B.C.
538-536) Daniel was promoted to the highest dignity (Dan. 6:1, 2); but on
account of the malice of his enemies he was cast into the den of lions. After
his miraculous escape, a decree was issued by Darius enjoining "reverence for
the God of Daniel" (6:26). This king was probably the "Astyages" of the Greek
historians. Nothing can, however, be with certainty affirmed regarding him. Some
are of opinion that the name "Darius" is simply a name of office, equivalent to
"governor," and that the "Gobryas" of the inscriptions was the person intended
by the name.
(2.) Darius, king of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes, of the royal family of
the Achaemenidae. He did not immediately succeed Cyrus on the throne. There were
two intermediate kings, viz., Cambyses (the Ahasuerus of Ezra), the son of
Cyrus, who reigned from B.C. 529-522, and was succeeded by a usurper named
Smerdis, who occupied the throne only ten months, and was succeeded by this
Darius (B.C. 521-486). Smerdis was a Margian, and therefore had no sympathy with
Cyrus and Cambyses in the manner in which they had treated the Jews. He issued a
decree prohibiting the restoration of the temple and of Jerusalem (Ezra
4:17-22). But soon after his death and the accession of Darius, the Jews resumed
their work, thinking that the edict of Smerdis would be now null and void, as
Darius was in known harmony with the religious policy of Cyrus. The enemies of
the Jews lost no time in bringing the matter under the notice of Darius, who
caused search to be made for the decree of Cyrus (q.v.). It was not found at
Babylon, but at Achmetha (Ezra 6:2); and Darius forthwith issued a new decree,
giving the Jews full liberty to prosecute their work, at the same time requiring
the Syrian satrap and his subordinates to give them all needed help. It was with
the army of this king that the Greeks fought the famous battle of Marathon (B.C.
490). During his reign the Jews enjoyed much peace and prosperity. He was
succeeded by Ahasuerus, known to the Greeks as Xerxes, who reigned for
twenty-one years.
(3.) Darius the Persian (Neh. 12:22) was probably the Darius II. (Ochus or
Nothus) of profane history, the son of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who was the son
and successor of Ahasuerus (Xerxes). There are some, however, who think that the
king here meant was Darius III. (Codomannus), the antagonist of Alexander the
Great (B.C. 336-331).
Darkness - The plague (the ninth) of darkness in
Egypt (Ex. 10:21) is described as darkness "which may be felt." It covered "all
the land of Egypt," so that "they saw not one another." It did not extend to the
land of Goshen (ver. 23).
When Jesus hung upon the cross (Matt. 27:45; Luke 23:44), from the "sixth
hour there was darkness over all the land unto the ninth hour."
On Mount Sinai, Moses (Ex. 20:21) "drew near unto the thick darkness where
God was." This was the "thick cloud upon the mount" in which Jehovah was when he
spake unto Moses there. The Lord dwelt in the cloud upon the mercy-seat (1 Kings
8:12), the cloud of glory. When the psalmist (Ps. 97:2) describes the
inscrutable nature of God's workings among the sons of men, he says, "Clouds and
darkness are round about him." God dwells in thick darkness.
Darkness (Isa. 13:9, 10; Matt. 24:29) also is a symbol of the judgments that
attend on the coming of the Lord. It is a symbol of misery and adversity (Job
18:6; Ps. 107:10; Isa. 8:22; Ezek. 30:18). The "day of darkness" in Joel 2:2,
caused by clouds of locusts, is a symbol of the obscurity which overhangs all
divine proceedings. "Works of darkness" are impure actions (Eph. 5:11). "Outer
darkness" refers to the darkness of the streets in the East, which are never
lighted up by any public or private lamps after nightfall, in contrast with the
blaze of cheerful light in the house. It is also a symbol of ignorance (Isa.
9:2; 60:2; Matt. 6:23) and of death (Job 10:21; 17:13).
Darling - Ps. 22:20; 35:17) means an "only one."
Dart - an instrument of war; a light spear. "Fiery
darts" (Eph. 6:16) are so called in allusion to the habit of discharging darts
from the bow while they are on fire or armed with some combustible material.
Arrows are compared to lightning (Deut. 32:23, 42; Ps. 7:13; 120:4).
Date - the fruit of a species of palm (q.v.), the
Phoenix dactilifera. This was a common tree in Palestine (Joel 1:12; Neh. 8:15).
Palm branches were carried by the Jews on festive occasions, and especially at
the feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:40; Neh. 8:15).
Dathan - welled; belonging to a fountain, a son of
Eliab, a Reubenite, who joined Korah (q.v.) in his conspiracy, and with his
accomplices was swallowed up by an earthquake (Num. 16:1; 26:9; Deut. 11:6; Ps.
106:17).
Daughter - This word, besides its natural and proper
sense, is used to designate, (1.) A niece or any female descendant (Gen. 20:12;
24:48; 28:6). (2.) Women as natives of a place, or as professing the religion of
a place; as, "the daughters of Zion" (Isa. 3:16), "daughters of the Philistines"
(2 Sam. 1:20). (3.) Small towns and villages lying around a city are its
"daughters," as related to the metropolis or mother city. Tyre is in this sense
called the daughter of Sidon (Isa. 23:12). (4.) The people of Jerusalem are
spoken of as "the daughters of Zion" (Isa. 37:22). (5.) The daughters of a tree
are its boughs (Gen. 49:22). (6.) The "daughters of music" (Eccl. 12:4) are
singing women.
David - beloved, the eighth and youngest son of
Jesse, a citizen of Bethlehem. His father seems to have been a man in humble
life. His mother's name is not recorded. Some think she was the Nahash of 2 Sam.
17:25. As to his personal appearance, we only know that he was red-haired, with
beautiful eyes and a fair face (1 Sam. 16:12; 17:42).
His early occupation was that of tending his father's sheep on the uplands of
Judah. From what we know of his after history, doubtless he frequently beguiled
his time, when thus engaged, with his shepherd's flute, while he drank in the
many lessons taught him by the varied scenes spread around him. His first
recorded exploits were his encounters with the wild beasts of the field. He
mentions that with his own unaided hand he slew a lion and also a bear, when
they came out against his flock, beating them to death in open conflict with his
club (1 Sam. 17:34, 35).
While David, in the freshness of ruddy youth, was thus engaged with his
flocks, Samuel paid an unexpected visit to Bethlehem, having been guided thither
by divine direction (1 Sam. 16:1-13). There he offered up sacrifice, and called
the elders of Israel and Jesse's family to the sacrificial meal. Among all who
appeared before him he failed to discover the one he sought. David was sent for,
and the prophet immediately recognized him as the chosen of God, chosen to
succeed Saul, who was now departing from the ways of God, on the throne of the
kingdom. He accordingly, in anticipation, poured on his head the anointing oil.
David went back again to his shepherd life, but "the Spirit of the Lord came
upon David from that day forward," and "the Spirit of the Lord departed from
Saul" (1 Sam. 16:13, 14).
Not long after this David was sent for to soothe with his harp the troubled
spirit of Saul, who suffered from a strange melancholy dejection. He played
before the king so skilfully that Saul was greatly cheered, and began to
entertain great affection for the young shepherd. After this he went home to
Bethlehem. But he soon again came into prominence. The armies of the Philistines
and of Israel were in battle array in the valley of Elah, some 16 miles
south-west of Bethlehem; and David was sent by his father with provisions for
his three brothers, who were then fighting on the side of the king. On his
arrival in the camp of Israel, David (now about twenty years of age) was made
aware of the state of matters when the champion of the Philistines, Goliath of
Gath, came forth to defy Israel. David took his sling, and with a well-trained
aim threw a stone "out of the brook," which struck the giant's forehead, so that
he fell senseless to the ground. David then ran and slew him, and cut off his
head with his own sword (1 Sam. 17). The result was a great victory to the
Israelites, who pursued the Philistines to the gates of Gath and Ekron.
David's popularity consequent on this heroic exploit awakened Saul's jealousy
(1 Sam. 18:6-16), which he showed in various ways. He conceived a bitter hatred
toward him, and by various stratagems sought his death (1 Sam. 18-30). The
deep-laid plots of the enraged king, who could not fail to observe that David
"prospered exceedingly," all proved futile, and only endeared the young hero the
more to the people, and very specially to Jonathan, Saul's son, between whom and
David a life-long warm friendship was formed.
A fugitive. To escape from the vengeance of Saul, David fled to Ramah (1 Sam.
19:12-18) to Samuel, who received him, and he dwelt among the sons of the
prophets, who were there under Samuel's training. It is supposed by some that
the sixth, seventh, and eleventh Psalms were composed by him at this time. This
place was only 3 miles from the residence of Saul, who soon discovered whither
the fugitive had gone, and tried ineffectually to bring him back. Jonathan made
a fruitless effort to bring his father to a better state of mind toward David (1
Sam. 20), who, being made aware of the fact, saw no hope of safety but in flight
to a distance. We accordingly find him first at Nob (21:1-9) and then at Gath,
the chief city of the Philistines. The king of the Philistines would not admit
him into his service, as he expected that he would, and David accordingly now
betook himself to the stronghold of Adullam (22:1-4; 1 Chr. 12:8-18). Here in a
short time 400 men gathered around him and acknowledged him as their leader. It
was at this time that David, amid the harassment and perils of his position,
cried, "Oh that one would give me drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem;"
when three of his heroes broke through the lines of the Philistines and brought
him the water for which he longed (2 Sam. 23:13-17), but which he would not
drink.
In his rage at the failure of all his efforts to seize David, Saul gave
orders for the massacre of the entire priestly family at Nob, "persons who wore
a linen ephod", to the number of eighty-five persons, who were put to death by
Doeg the Edomite. The sad tidings of the massacre were brought to David by
Abiathar, a son of Ahimelech, the only one who escaped. Comp. Ps. 52.
Hearing that Keilah, a town on the western frontier, was harassed by the
Philistines, David with his men relieved it (1 Sam. 23:1-14); and then, for fear
of Saul, he fled to the strongholds in the "hill country" of Judah. Comp. Ps.
31. While encamped there, in the forest in the district of Ziph, he was visited
by Jonathan, who spoke to him words of encouragement (23:16-18). The two now
parted never to meet again. Saul continued his pursuit of David, who narrowly
escaped from him at this time, and fled to the crags and ravines of Engedi, on
the western shore of the Dead Sea (1 Sam. 23:29). Here Saul, who still pursued
him with his army, narrowly escaped, through the generous forbearance of David,
and was greatly affected by what David had done for him. He returned home from
pursuing him, and David betook himself to Maon, where, with his 600 men, he
maintained himself by contributions gathered from the district. Here occurred
the incident connected with Nabal and his wife Abigail (1 Sam. 25), whom David
married after Nabal's death.
Saul again went forth (1 Sam. 26) in pursuit of David, who had hid himself
"in the hill Hachilah, which is before Jeshimon," in the wilderness of Ziph, and
was a second time spared through his forbearance. He returned home, professing
shame and penitence for the way in which he had treated David, and predicting
his elevation to the throne.
Fighting against Israel. Harassed by the necessity of moving from place to
place through fear of Saul, David once more sought refuge among the Philistines
(1 Sam. 27). He was welcomed by the king, who assigned him Ziklag as his
residence. Here David lived among his followers for some time as an independent
chief engaged in frequent war with the Amalekites and other tribes on the south
of Judah.
Achish summoned David with his men to join his army against Saul; but the
lords of the Philistines were suspicious of David's loyalty, and therefore he
was sent back to Ziklag, which he found to his dismay may had been pillaged and
burnt during his brief absence. David pursued after the raiders, the Amalekites,
and completely routed them. On his return to Ziklag tidings reached him of
Saul's death (2 Sam. 1). An Amalekite brought Saul's crown and bracelet and laid
them at his feet. David and his men rent their clothes and mourned for Saul, who
had been defeated in battle near Mount Gilboa. David composed a beautiful elegy,
the most beautiful of all extant Hebrew odes, a "lamentation over Saul and over
Jonathan his son" (2 Sam. 1:18-27). It bore the title of "The Bow," and was to
be taught to the children, that the memory of Saul and Jonathan might be
preserved among them. "Behold, it is written in the book of Jasher" (q.v.).
David king over Judah. David and his men now set out for Hebron under divine
direction (2 Sam. 2:1-4). There they were cordially welcomed, and he was at once
anointed as king. He was now about thirty years of age.
But his title to the throne was not undisputed. Abner took Ish-bosheth,
Saul's only remaining son, over the Jordan to Mahanaim, and there crowned him as
king. Then began a civil war in Israel. The first encounter between the two
opposing armies, led on the one side by Abner, and on the other by Joab, took
place at the pool of Gibeon. It resulted in the defeat of Abner. Other
encounters, however, between Israel and Judah followed (2 Sam. 3:1, 5), but
still success was on the side of David. For the space of seven and a half years
David reigned in Hebron. Abner now sided with David, and sought to promote his
advancement; but was treacherously put to death by Joab in revenge for his
having slain his brother Asahel at Gibeon (3:22-39). This was greatly to David's
regret. He mourned for the death of Abner. Shortly after this Ish-bosheth was
also treacherously put to death by two Canaanites of Beeroth; and there being
now no rival, David was anointed king over all Israel (4:1-12).
David king over all Israel (2 Sam. 5:1-5; 1 Chr. 11:1-3). The elders of
Israel now repaired to Hebron and offered allegiance to David in name of all the
people, among whom the greatest enthusiasm prevailed. He was anointed king over
all Israel, and sought out a new seat of government, more suitable than Hebron,
as the capital of his empire. At this time there was a Jebusite fortress, "the
stronghold", on the hill of Zion, called also Jebus. This David took from the
Jebusites, and made it Israel's capital, and established here his residence, and
afterwards built for himself a palace by the aid of Tyrian tradesmen. The
Philistines, who had for some time observed a kind of truce, now made war
against David; but were defeated in battle at a place afterwards called, in
remembrance of the victory, Baal-perazim. Again they invaded the land, and were
a second time routed by him. He thus delivered Israel from their enemies.
David now resolved to bring up the ark of the covenant to his new capital (2
Sam. 6). It was in the house of Abinadab at Kirjath-jearim, about 7 miles from
Jerusalem, where it had been for many years, from the time when the Philistines
had sent it home (1 Sam. 6; 7). In consequence of the death of Uzzah (for it was
a divine ordinance that only the Levites should handle the ark, Num. 4), who had
put forth his hand to steady the ark when the cart in which it was being
conveyed shook by reason of the roughness of the road, David stayed the
procession, and conveyed the ark into the house of Obed-edom, a Philistine from
Gath. After three months David brought the ark from the house of Obed-edom up to
Jerusalem. Comp. Ps. 24. Here it was placed in a new tent or tabernacle which
David erected for the purpose. About seventy years had passed since it had stood
in the tabernacle at Shiloh. The old tabernacle was now at Gibeah, at which
Zadok ministered. David now (1 Chr. 16) carefully set in order all the ritual of
divine worship at Jerusalem, along with Abiathar the high priest. A new
religious era began. The service of praise was for the first time introduced
into public worship. Zion became henceforth "God's holy hill."
David's wars. David now entered on a series of conquests which greatly
extended and strengthened his kingdom (2 Sam. 8). In a few years the whole
territory from the Euphrates to the river of Egypt, and from Gaza on the west to
Thapsacus on the east, was under his sway (2 Sam. 8:3-13; 10).
David's fall. He had now reached the height of his glory. He ruled over a
vast empire, and his capital was enriched with the spoils of many lands. But in
the midst of all this success he fell, and his character became stained with the
sin of adultery (2 Sam. 11:2-27). It has been noted as characteristic of the
Bible that while his military triumphs are recorded in a few verses, the sad
story of his fall is given in detail, a story full of warning, and therefore
recorded. This crime, in the attempt to conceal it, led to anoter. He was guilty
of murder. Uriah, whom he had foully wronged, an officer of the Gibborim, the
corps of heros (23:39), was, by his order, "set in the front of the hottest
battle" at the siege of Rabbah, in order that he might be put to death. Nathan
the prophet (2 Sam. 7:1-17; 12:1-23) was sent by God to bring home his crimes to
the conscience of the guilty monarch. He became a true penitent. He bitterly
bewailed his sins before God. The thirty-second and fifty-first Psalms reveal
the deep struggles of his soul, and his spiritual recovery.
Bathsheba became his wife after Uriah's death. Her first-born son died,
according to the word of the prophet. She gave birth to a second son, whom David
called Solomon, and who ultimately succeeded him on the throne (2 Sam. 12:24,
25).
Peace. After the successful termination of all his wars, David formed the
idea of building a temple for the ark of God. This he was not permitted to carry
into execution, because he had been a man of war. God, however, sent Nathan to
him with a gracious message (2 Sam. 7:1-16). On receiving it he went into the
sanctuary, the tent where the ark was, and sat before the Lord, and poured out
his heart in words of devout thanksgiving (18-29). The building of the temple
was reserved for his son Solomon, who would be a man of peace (1 Chr. 22:9;
28:3).
A cloudy evening. Hitherto David's carrer had been one of great prosperity
and success. Now cloudy and dark days came. His eldest son Amnon, whose mother
was Ahinoam of Jezreel, was guilty of a great and shameful crime (2 Sam. 13).
This was the beginning of the disasters of his later years. After two years
Absalom terribly avenged the crime against Tamar, and put Amnon to death. This
brought sore trouble to David's heart. Absalom, afraid of the consequences of
his guilt, fled to Geshur beyond Jordan, where he remained for three years, when
he was brought back through the intrigue of Joab (2 Sam. 14).
After this there fell upon the land the calamity of three years' famine (2
Sam. 21:1-14). This was soon after followed by a pestilence, brought upon the
land as a punishment for David's sinful pride in numbering the people (2 Sam.
24), in which no fewer than 70,000 perished in the space of three days.
Rebellion of Absalom. The personal respect for David was sadly lowered by the
incident of Bathsheba. There was a strong popular sentiment against the taking
of the census, and the outburst of the plague in connection with it deepened the
feeling of jealously that had begun to manifest itself among some of the tribes
against David. Absalom, taking full advantage of this state of things, gradually
gained over the people, and at length openly rebelled against his father, and
usurped the throne. Ahithophel was Absalom's chief counsellor. The revolt began
in Hebron, the capital of Judah. Absalom was there proclaimed king. David was
now in imminent danger, and he left Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15:13-20), and once more
became a fugitive. It was a momentous day in Israel. The incidents of it are
recorded with a fulness of detail greater than of any other day in Old Testament
history. David fled with his followers to Mahanarm, on the east of Jordan. An
unnatural civil war broke out. After a few weeks the rival armies were mustered
and organized. They met in hostile array at the wood of Ephraim (2 Sam. 18:1-8).
Absalom's army was defeated, and himself put to death by the hand of Joab
(9-18). The tidings of the death of his rebellious son filled the heart of David
with the most poignant grief. He "went up to the chamber over the gate, and
wept" (33), giving utterance to the heart-broken cry, "Would God I had died for
thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!" Peace was now restored, and David returned to
Jerusalem and resumed the direction of affairs. An unhappy dispute arose between
the men of Judah and the men of Israel (19:41-43). Sheba, a Benjamite, headed a
revolt of the men of Israel. He was pursued to Abelbeth-maachah, and was there
put to death, and so the revolt came to an end.
The end. After the suppression of the rebellion of Absalom and that of Sheba,
ten comparatively peaceful years of David's life passed away. During those years
he seems to have been principally engaged in accumulating treasures of every
kind for the great temple at Jerusalem, which it was reserved to his successor
to build (1 Chr. 22; 28; 29), a house which was to be "exceeding magnifical, of
fame and of glory throughout all countries" (22:5). The exciting and laborious
life he had spent, and the dangers and trials through which he had passed, had
left him an enfeebled man, prematurely old. It became apparent that his life was
now drawing to its close. A new palace conspiracy broke out as to who should be
his successor. Joab favoured Adonijah. The chiefs of his party met at the
"Fuller's spring," in the valley of Kidron, to proclaim him king; but Nathan
hastened on a decision on the part of David in favour of Solomon, and so the aim
of Adonijah's party failed. Solomon was brought to Jerusalem, and was anointed
king and seated on his father's throne (1 Kings 1:11-53). David's last words are
a grand utterance, revealing his unfailing faith in God, and his joyful
confidence in his gracious covenant promises (2 Sam. 23:1-7).
After a reign of forty years and six months (2 Sam. 5:5; 1 Chr. 3:4) David
died (B.C. 1015) at the age of seventy years, "and was buried in the city of
David." His tomb is still pointed out on Mount Zion.
Both in his prophetical and in his regal character David was a type of the
Messiah (1 Sam. 16:13). The book of Psalms commonly bears the title of the
"Psalms of David," from the circumstance that he was the largest contributor
(about eighty psalms) to the collection. (See PSALMS.)
"The greatness of David was felt when he was gone. He had lived in harmony
with both the priesthood and the prophets; a sure sign that the spirit of his
government had been throughly loyal to the higher aims of the theocracy. The
nation had not been oppressed by him, but had been left in the free enjoyment of
its ancient liberties. As far as his power went he had striven to act justly to
all (2 Sam. 8:15). His weak indulgence to his sons, and his own great sin
besides, had been bitterly atoned, and were forgotten at his death in the
remembrance of his long-tried worth. He had reigned thirty-three years in
Jerusalem and seven and a half at Hebron (2 Sam. 5:5). Israel at his accession
had reached the lowest point of national depression; its new-born unity rudely
dissolved; its territory assailed by the Philistines. But he had left it an
imperial power, with dominions like those of Egypt or Assyria. The sceptre of
Solomon was already, before his father's death, owned from the Mediterranean to
the Euphrates, and from the Orontes to the Red Sea.", Geikie's Hours etc., iii.
David, City of - (1.) David took from the Jebusites
the fortress of Mount Zion. He "dwelt in the fort, and called it the city of
David" (1 Chr. 11:7). This was the name afterwards given to the castle and royal
palace on Mount Zion, as distinguished from Jerusalem generally (1 Kings 3:1;
8:1), It was on the south-west side of Jerusalem, opposite the temple mount,
with which it was connected by a bridge over the Tyropoeon valley.
(2) Bethlehem is called the "city of David" (Luke 2:4, 11), because it was
David's birth-place and early home (1 Sam. 17:12).
Day - The Jews reckoned the day from sunset to sunset
(Lev. 23:32). It was originally divided into three parts (Ps. 55:17). "The heat
of the day" (1 Sam. 11:11; Neh. 7:3) was at our nine o'clock, and "the cool of
the day" just before sunset (Gen. 3:8). Before the Captivity the Jews divided
the night into three watches, (1) from sunset to midnight (Lam. 2:19); (2) from
midnight till the cock-crowing (Judg. 7:19); and (3) from the cock-crowing till
sunrise (Ex. 14:24). In the New Testament the division of the Greeks and Romans
into four watches was adopted (Mark 13:35). (See WATCHES.)
The division of the day by hours is first mentioned in Dan. 3:6, 15; 4:19;
5:5. This mode of reckoning was borrowed from the Chaldeans. The reckoning of
twelve hours was from sunrise to sunset, and accordingly the hours were of
variable length (John 11:9).
The word "day" sometimes signifies an indefinite time (Gen. 2:4; Isa. 22:5;
Heb. 3:8, etc.). In Job 3:1 it denotes a birthday, and in Isa. 2:12, Acts 17:31,
and 2 Tim. 1:18, the great day of final judgment.
Day's journey - The usual length of a day's journey
in the East, on camel or horseback, in six or eight hours, is about 25 or 30
miles. The "three days' journey" mentioned in Ex. 3:18 is simply a journey which
would occupy three days in going and returning.
Daysman - an umpire or arbiter or judge (Job 9:33).
This word is formed from the Latin diem dicere, i.e., to fix a day for hearing a
cause. Such an one is empowered by mutual consent to decide the cause, and to
"lay his hand", i.e., to impose his authority, on both, and enforce his
sentence.
Dayspring - (Job 38:12; Luke 1:78), the dawn of the
morning; daybreak. (Comp. Isa. 60:1, 2; Mal. 4:2; Rev. 22:16.)
Daystar - which precedes and accompanies the
sun-rising. It is found only in 2 Pet. 1:19, where it denotes the manifestation
of Christ to the soul, imparting spiritual light and comfort. He is the "bright
and morning star" of Rev. 2:28; 22:16. (Comp. Num. 24:17.)
Deacon - Anglicized form of the Greek word diaconos,
meaning a "runner," "messenger," "servant." For a long period a feeling of
mutual jealousy had existed between the "Hebrews," or Jews proper, who spoke the
sacred language of palestine, and the "Hellenists," or Jews of the Grecian
speech, who had adopted the Grecian language, and read the Septuagint version of
the Bible instead of the Hebrew. This jealousy early appeared in the Christian
community. It was alleged by the Hellenists that their widows were overlooked in
the daily distribution of alms. This spirit must be checked. The apostles
accordingly advised the disciples to look out for seven men of good report, full
of the Holy Ghost, and men of practical wisdom, who should take entire charge of
this distribution, leaving them free to devote themselves entirely to the
spiritual functions of their office (Acts 6:1-6). This was accordingly done.
Seven men were chosen, who appear from their names to have been Hellenists. The
name "deacon" is nowhere applied to them in the New Testament; they are simply
called "the seven" (21:8). Their office was at first secular, but it afterwards
became also spiritual; for among other qualifications they must also be "apt to
teach" (1 Tim. 3: 8-12). Both Philip and Stephen, who were of "the seven,"
preached; they did "the work of evangelists."
Deaconess - Rom. 16:1, 3, 12; Phil. 4:2, 3; 1 Tim.
3:11; 5:9, 10; Titus 2:3, 4). In these passages it is evident that females were
then engaged in various Christian ministrations. Pliny makes mention of them
also in his letter to Trajan (A.D. 110).
Dead Sea - the name given by Greek writers of the
second century to that inland sea called in Scripture the "salt sea" (Gen. 14:3;
Num. 34:12), the "sea of the plain" (Deut. 3:17), the "east sea" (Ezek. 47:18;
Joel 2:20), and simply "the sea" (Ezek. 47:8). The Arabs call it Bahr Lut, i.e.,
the Sea of Lot. It lies about 16 miles in a straight line to the east of
Jerusalem. Its surface is 1,292 feet below the surface of the Mediterranean Sea.
It covers an area of about 300 square miles. Its depth varies from 1,310 to 11
feet. From various phenomena that have been observed, its bottom appears to be
still subsiding. It is about 53 miles long, and of an average breadth of 10
miles. It has no outlet, the great heat of that region causing such rapid
evaporation that its average depth, notwithstanding the rivers that run into it
(see JORDAN ¯T0002112), is maintained with little variation. The Jordan alone
discharges into it no less than six million tons of water every twenty-four
hours.
The waters of the Dead Sea contain 24.6 per cent. of mineral salts, about
seven times as much as in ordinary sea-water; thus they are unusually buoyant.
Chloride of magnesium is most abundant; next to that chloride of sodium (common
salt). But terraces of alluvial deposits in the deep valley of the Jordan show
that formerly one great lake extended from the Waters of Merom to the foot of
the watershed in the Arabah. The waters were then about 1,400 feet above the
present level of the Dead Sea, or slightly above that of the Mediterranean, and
at that time were much less salt.
Nothing living can exist in this sea. "The fish carried down by the Jordan at
once die, nor can even mussels or corals live in it; but it is a fable that no
bird can fly over it, or that there are no living creatures on its banks. Dr.
Tristram found on the shores three kinds of kingfishers, gulls, ducks, and
grebes, which he says live on the fish which enter the sea in shoals, and
presently die. He collected one hundred and eighteen species of birds, some new
to science, on the shores, or swimming or flying over the waters. The
cane-brakes which fringe it at some parts are the homes of about forty species
of mammalia, several of them animals unknown in England; and innumerable
tropical or semi-tropical plants perfume the atmosphere wherever fresh water can
reach. The climate is perfect and most delicious, and indeed there is perhaps no
place in the world where a sanatorium could be established with so much prospect
of benefit as at Ain Jidi (Engedi).", Geikie's Hours, etc.
Dearth - a scarcity of provisions (1 Kings 17). There
were frequent dearths in Palestine. In the days of Abram there was a "famine in
the land" (Gen. 12:10), so also in the days of Jacob (47:4, 13). We read also of
dearths in the time of the judges (Ruth 1:1), and of the kings (2 Sam. 21:1; 1
Kings 18:2; 2 Kings 4:38; 8:1).
In New Testament times there was an extensive famine in Palestine (Acts
11:28) in the fourth year of the reign of the emperor Claudius (A.D. 44 and 45).
Death - may be simply defined as the termination of
life. It is represented under a variety of aspects in Scripture: (1.) "The dust
shall return to the earth as it was" (Eccl. 12:7).
(2.) "Thou takest away their breath, they die" (Ps. 104:29).
(3.) It is the dissolution of "our earthly house of this tabernacle" (2 Cor.
5:1); the "putting off this tabernacle" (2 Pet. 1:13, 14).
(4.) Being "unclothed" (2 Cor. 5:3, 4).
(5.) "Falling on sleep" (Ps. 76:5; Jer. 51:39; Acts 13:36; 2 Pet. 3:9.
(6.) "I go whence I shall not return" (Job 10:21); "Make me to know mine end"
(Ps. 39:4); "to depart" (Phil. 1:23).
The grave is represented as "the gates of death" (Job 38:17; Ps. 9:13;
107:18). The gloomy silence of the grave is spoken of under the figure of the
"shadow of death" (Jer. 2:6).
Death is the effect of sin (Heb. 2:14), and not a "debt of nature." It is but
once (9:27), universal (Gen. 3:19), necessary (Luke 2:28-30). Jesus has by his
own death taken away its sting for all his followers (1 Cor. 15:55-57).
There is a spiritual death in trespasses and sins, i.e., the death of the
soul under the power of sin (Rom. 8:6; Eph. 2:1, 3; Col. 2:13).
The "second death" (Rev. 2:11) is the everlasting perdition of the wicked
(Rev. 21:8), and "second" in respect to natural or temporal death.
THE DEATH OF CHRIST is the procuring cause incidentally of all the blessings
men enjoy on earth. But specially it is the procuring cause of the actual
salvation of all his people, together with all the means that lead thereto. It
does not make their salvation merely possible, but certain (Matt. 18:11; Rom.
5:10; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 1:4; 3:13; Eph. 1:7; 2:16; Rom. 8:32-35).
Debir - oracle town; sanctuary. (1.) One of the
eleven cities to the west of Hebron, in the highlands of Judah (Josh. 15:49;
Judg. 1:11-15). It was originally one of the towns of the Anakim (Josh. 15:15),
and was also called Kirjath-sepher (q.v.) and Kirjath-sannah (49). Caleb, who
had conquered and taken possession of the town and district of Hebron (Josh.
14:6-15), offered the hand of his daughter to any one who would successfully
lead a party against Debir. Othniel, his younger brother (Judg. 1:13; 3:9),
achieved the conquest, and gained Achsah as his wife. She was not satisfied with
the portion her father gave her, and as she was proceeding toward her new home,
she "lighted from off her ass" and said to him, "Give me a blessing [i.e., a
dowry]: for thou hast given me a south land" (Josh. 15:19, A.V.); or, as in the
Revised Version, "Thou hast set me in the land of the south", i.e., in the
Negeb, outside the rich valley of Hebron, in the dry and barren land. "Give me
also springs of water. And he gave her the upper springs, and the nether
springs."
Debir has been identified with the modern Edh-Dhaheriyeh, i.e., "the well on
the ridge", to the south of Hebron.
(2.) A place near the "valley of Achor" (Josh. 15:7), on the north boundary
of Judah, between Jerusalem and Jericho.
(3.) The king of Eglon, one of the five Canaanitish kings who were hanged by
Joshua (Josh. 10:3, 23) after the victory at Gibeon. These kings fled and took
refuge in a cave at Makkedah. Here they were kept confined till Joshua returned
from the pursuit of their discomfited armies, when he caused them to be brought
forth, and "Joshua smote them, and slew them, and hanged them on five trees"
(26).
Deborah - a bee. (1.) Rebekah's nurse. She
accompanied her mistress when she left her father's house in Padan-aram to
become the wife of Isaac (Gen. 24:59). Many years afterwards she died at Bethel,
and was buried under the "oak of weeping", Allon-bachuth (35:8).
(2.) A prophetess, "wife" (woman?) of Lapidoth. Jabin, the king of Hazor, had
for twenty years held Israel in degrading subjection. The spirit of patriotism
seemed crushed out of the nation. In this emergency Deborah roused the people
from their lethargy. Her fame spread far and wide. She became a "mother in
Israel" (Judg. 4:6, 14; 5:7), and "the children of Israel came up to her for
judgment" as she sat in her tent under the palm tree "between Ramah and Bethel."
Preparations were everywhere made by her direction for the great effort to throw
off the yoke of bondage. She summoned Barak from Kadesh to take the command of
10,000 men of Zebulun and Naphtali, and lead them to Mount Tabor on the plain of
Esdraelon at its north-east end. With his aid she organized this army. She gave
the signal for attack, and the Hebrew host rushed down impetuously upon the army
of Jabin, which was commanded by Sisera, and gained a great and decisive
victory. The Canaanitish army almost wholly perished. That was a great and
ever-memorable day in Israel. In Judg. 5 is given the grand triumphal ode, the
"song of Deborah," which she wrote in grateful commemoration of that great
deliverance. (See LAPIDOTH ¯T0002240, JABIN ¯T0001938 [2].)
Debt - The Mosaic law encouraged the practice of
lending (Deut. 15:7; Ps. 37:26; Matt. 5:42); but it forbade the exaction of
interest except from foreigners. Usury was strongly condemned (Prov. 28:8; Ezek.
18:8, 13, 17; 22:12; Ps. 15:5). On the Sabbatical year all pecuniary obligations
were cancelled (Deut. 15:1-11). These regulations prevented the accumulation of
debt.
Debtor - Various regulations as to the relation
between debtor and creditor are laid down in the Scriptures.
(1.) The debtor was to deliver up as a pledge to the creditor what he could
most easily dispense with (Deut. 24:10, 11).
(2.) A mill, or millstone, or upper garment, when given as a pledge, could
not be kept over night (Ex. 22:26, 27).
(3.) A debt could not be exacted during the Sabbatic year (Deut. 15:1-15).
For other laws bearing on this relation see Lev. 25:14, 32, 39; Matt. 18:25,
34.
(4.) A surety was liable in the same way as the original debtor (Prov. 11:15;
17:18).
Decalogue - the name given by the Greek fathers to
the ten commandments; "the ten words," as the original is more literally
rendered (Ex. 20:3-17). These commandments were at first written on two stone
slabs (31:18), which were broken by Moses throwing them down on the ground
(32:19). They were written by God a second time (34:1). The decalogue is alluded
to in the New Testament five times (Matt. 5:17, 18, 19; Mark 10:19; Luke 18:20;
Rom. 7:7, 8; 13:9; 1 Tim. 1:9, 10).
These commandments have been divided since the days of Origen the Greek
father, as they stand in the Confession of all the Reformed Churches except the
Lutheran. The division adopted by Luther, and which has ever since been received
in the Lutheran Church, makes the first two commandments one, and the third the
second, and so on to the last, which is divided into two. "Thou shalt not covet
thy neighbour's house" being ranked as ninth, and "Thou shalt not covet thy
neighbour's wife," etc., the tenth. (See COMMANDMENTS.)