Oreb, The rock of - the place where Gideon slew Oreb
after the defeat of the Midianites (Judg. 7:25; Isa. 10:26). It was probably the
place now called Orbo, on the east of Jordan, near Bethshean.
Oren - ash or pine, the son of Jerahmeel (1 Chr.
2:25).
Organ - some kind of wind instrument, probably a kind
of Pan's pipes (Gen. 4:21; Job 21:12; Ps. 150:4), which consisted of seven or
eight reeds of unequal length.
Orion - Heb. Kesil; i.e., "the fool", the name of a
constellation (Job 9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8) consisting of about eighty stars. The
Vulgate renders thus, but the LXX. renders by Hesperus, i.e., "the
evening-star," Venus. The Orientals "appear to have conceived of this
constellation under the figure of an impious giant bound upon the sky." This
giant was, according to tradition, Nimrod, the type of the folly that contends
against God. In Isa. 13:10 the plural form of the Hebrew word is rendered
"constellations."
Ornan - 1 Chr. 21:15. (See ARAUNAH.)
Orpah - forelock or fawn, a Moabitess, the wife of
Chilion (Ruth 1:4; 4:10). On the death of her husband she accompanied Naomi, her
mother-in-law, part of the way to Bethlehem, and then returned to Moab.
Orphans - (Lam. 5:3), i.e., desolate and without
protectors. The word occurs only here. In John 14:18 the word there rendered
"comfortless" (R.V., "desolate;" marg., "orphans") properly means "orphans." The
same Greek word is rendered "fatherless" in James 1:27.
Osprey - Heb. 'ozniyyah, an unclean bird according to
the Mosaic law (Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12); the fish-eating eagle (Pandion
haliaetus); one of the lesser eagles. But the Hebrew word may be taken to denote
the short-toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus of Southern Europe), one of the most
abundant of the eagle tribe found in Palestine.
Ossifrage - Heb. peres = to "break" or "crush", the
lammer-geier, or bearded vulture, the largest of the whole vulture tribe. It was
an unclean bird (Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12). It is not a gregarious bird, and is
found but rarely in Palestine. "When the other vultures have picked the flesh
off any animal, he comes in at the end of the feast, and swallows the bones, or
breaks them, and swallows the pieces if he cannot otherwise extract the marrow.
The bones he cracks [hence the appropriateness of the name ossifrage, i.e.,
"bone-breaker"] by letting them fall on a rock from a great height. He does not,
however, confine himself to these delicacies, but whenever he has an opportunity
will devour lambs, kids, or hares. These he generally obtains by pushing them
over cliffs, when he has watched his opportunity; and he has been known to
attack men while climbing rocks, and dash them against the bottom. But tortoises
and serpents are his ordinary food...No doubt it was a lammer-geier that mistook
the bald head of the poet AEschylus for a stone, and dropped on it the tortoise
which killed him" (Tristram's Nat. Hist.).
Ostrich - (Lam. 4:3), the rendering of Hebrew pl.
enim; so called from its greediness and gluttony. The allusion here is to the
habit of the ostrich with reference to its eggs, which is thus described: "The
outer layer of eggs is generally so ill covered that they are destroyed in
quantities by jackals, wild-cats, etc., and that the natives carry them away,
only taking care not to leave the marks of their footsteps, since, when the
ostrich comes and finds that her nest is discovered, she crushes the whole
brood, and builds a nest elsewhere." In Job 39:13 this word in the Authorized
Version is the rendering of a Hebrew word (notsah) which means "feathers," as in
the Revised Version. In the same verse the word "peacocks" of the Authorized
Version is the rendering of the Hebrew pl. renanim, properly meaning
"ostriches," as in the Revised Version. (See OWL ¯T0002815 [1].)
Othni - a lion of Jehovah, a son of Shemaiah, and one
of the temple porters in the time of David (1 Chr. 26:7). He was a "mighty man
of valour."
Othniel - lion of God, the first of the judges. His
wife Achsah was the daughter of Caleb (Josh. 15:16, 17; Judg. 1:13). He gained
her hand as a reward for his bravery in leading a successful expedition against
Debir (q.v.). Some thirty years after the death of Joshua, the Israelites fell
under the subjection of Chushan-rishathaim (q.v.), the king of Mesopotamia. He
oppressed them for full eight years, when they "cried" unto Jehovah, and Othniel
was raised up to be their deliverer. He was the younger brother of Caleb (Judg.
3:8, 9-11). He is the only judge mentioned connected with the tribe of Judah.
Under him the land had rest forty years.
Ouches - an Old English word denoting cavities or
sockets in which gems were set (Ex. 28:11).
Oven - Heb. tannur, (Hos. 7:4). In towns there appear
to have been public ovens. There was a street in Jerusalem (Jer. 37:21) called
"bakers' street" (the only case in which the name of a street in Jerusalem is
preserved). The words "tower of the furnaces" (Neh. 3:11; 12:38) is more
properly "tower of the ovens" (Heb. tannurim). These resemble the ovens in use
among ourselves.
There were other private ovens of different kinds. Some were like large jars
made of earthenware or copper, which were heated inside with wood (1 Kings
17:12; Isa. 44:15; Jer. 7:18) or grass (Matt. 6:30), and when the fire had
burned out, small pieces of dough were placed inside or spread in thin layers on
the outside, and were thus baked. (See FURNACE.)
Pits were also formed for the same purposes, and lined with cement. These
were used after the same manner.
Heated stones, or sand heated by a fire heaped over it, and also flat irons
pans, all served as ovens for the preparation of bread. (See Gen. 18:6; 1 Kings
19:6.)
Owl - (1.) Heb. bath-haya'anah, "daughter of
greediness" or of "shouting." In the list of unclean birds (Lev. 11:16; Deut.
14:15); also mentioned in Job 30:29; Isa. 13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Jer. 50:39; Micah
1:8. In all these passages the Revised Version translates "ostrich" (q.v.),
which is the correct rendering.
(2.) Heb. yanshuph, rendered "great owl" in Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16, and
"owl" in Isa. 34:11. This is supposed to be the Egyptian eagle-owl (Bubo
ascalaphus), which takes the place of the eagle-owl (Bubo maximus) found in
Southern Europe. It is found frequenting the ruins of Egypt and also of the Holy
Land. "Its cry is a loud, prolonged, and very powerful hoot. I know nothing
which more vividly brought to my mind the sense of desolation and loneliness
than the re-echoing hoot of two or three of these great owls as I stood at
midnight among the ruined temples of Baalbek" (Tristram).
The LXX. and Vulgate render this word by "ibis", i.e., the Egyptian heron.
(3.) Heb. kos, rendered "little owl" in Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16, and "owl" in
Ps. 102:6. The Arabs call this bird "the mother of ruins." It is by far the most
common of all the owls of Palestine. It is the Athene persica, the bird of
Minerva, the symbol of ancient Athens.
(4.) Heb. kippoz, the "great owl" (Isa. 34:15); Revised Version,
"arrow-snake;" LXX. and Vulgate, "hedgehog," reading in the text, kippod,
instead of kippoz. There is no reason to doubt the correctness of the rendering
of the Authorized Version. Tristram says: "The word [i.e., kippoz] is very
possibly an imitation of the cry of the scops owl (Scops giu), which is very
common among ruins, caves, and old walls of towns...It is a migrant, returning
to Palestine in spring."
(5.) Heb. lilith, "screech owl" (Isa. 34:14, marg. and R.V., "night
monster"). The Hebrew word is from a root signifying "night." Some species of
the owl is obviously intended by this word. It may be the hooting or tawny owl
(Syrnium aluco), which is common in Egypt and in many parts of Palestine. This
verse in Isaiah is "descriptive of utter and perpetual desolation, of a land
that should be full of ruins, and inhabited by the animals that usually make
such ruins their abode."
Ox - Heb. bakar, "cattle;" "neat cattle", (Gen.
12:16; 34:28; Job 1:3, 14; 42:12, etc.); not to be muzzled when treading the
corn (Deut. 25:4). Referred to by our Lord in his reproof to the Pharisees (Luke
13:15; 14:5).
Ox goad - mentioned only in Judg. 3:31, the weapon
with which Shamgar (q.v.) slew six hundred Philistines. "The ploughman still
carries his goad, a weapon apparently more fitted for the hand of the soldier
than the peaceful husbandman. The one I saw was of the 'oak of Bashan,' and
measured upwards of ten feet in length. At one end was an iron spear, and at the
other a piece of the same metal flattened. One can well understand how a warrior
might use such a weapon with effect in the battle-field" (Porter's Syria, etc.).
(See GOAD.)
Ozem - strong. (1.) One of David's brothers; the
sixth son of Jesse (1 Chr. 2:15).
(2.) A son of Jerahmeel (1 Chr. 2:25).
Ozias - son of Joram (Matt. 1:8); called also Uzziah
(2 Kings 15:32, 34).
Ozni - hearing, one of the sons of Gad; also called
Ezbon (Gen. 46:16; Num. 26:16).
Paarai - opening of the Lord, "the Arbite," one of
David's heroes (2 Sam. 23:35); called also Naarai, 1 Chr. 11:37.
Padan - a plain, occurring only in Gen. 48:7, where
it designates Padan-aram.
Padan-aram - the plain of Aram, or the plain of the
highlands, (Gen. 25:20; 28:2, 5-7; 31:18, etc.), commonly regarded as the
district of Mesopotamia (q.v.) lying around Haran.
Pagiel - God allots, a prince of the tribe of Asher
(Num. 1:13), in the wilderness.
Pahath-moab - governor of Moab, a person whose
descendants returned from the Captivity and assisted in rebuilding Jerusalem
(Ezra 2:6; 8:4; 10:30).
Paint - Jezebel "painted her face" (2 Kings 9:30);
and the practice of painting the face and the eyes seems to have been common
(Jer. 4:30; Ezek. 23:40). An allusion to this practice is found in the name of
Job's daughter (42:14) Kerenhappuch (q.v.). Paintings in the modern sense of the
word were unknown to the ancient Jews.
Palace - Used now only of royal dwellings, although
originally meaning simply (as the Latin word palatium, from which it is derived,
shows) a building surrounded by a fence or a paling. In the Authorized Version
there are many different words so rendered, presenting different ideas, such as
that of citadel or lofty fortress or royal residence (Neh. 1:1; Dan. 8:2). It is
the name given to the temple fortress (Neh. 2:8) and to the temple itself (1
Chr. 29:1). It denotes also a spacious building or a great house (Dan. 1:4; 4:4,
29: Esther 1:5; 7:7), and a fortified place or an enclosure (Ezek. 25:4).
Solomon's palace is described in 1 Kings 7:1-12 as a series of buildings rather
than a single great structure. Thirteen years were spent in their erection. This
palace stood on the eastern hill, adjoining the temple on the south.
In the New Testament it designates the official residence of Pilate or that
of the high priest (Matt. 26:3, 58, 69; Mark 14:54, 66; John 18:15). In Phil.
1:13 this word is the rendering of the Greek praitorion, meaning the praetorian
cohorts at Rome (the life-guard of the Caesars). Paul was continually chained to
a soldier of that corps (Acts 28:16), and hence his name and sufferings became
known in all the praetorium. The "soldiers that kept" him would, on relieving
one another on guard, naturally spread the tidings regarding him among their
comrades. Some, however, regard the praetroium (q.v.) as the barrack within the
palace (the palatium) of the Caesars in Rome where a detachment of these
praetorian guards was stationed, or as the camp of the guards placed outside the
eastern walls of Rome.
"In the chambers which were occupied as guard-rooms," says Dr. Manning, "by
the praetorian troops on duty in the palace, a number of rude caricatures are
found roughly scratched upon the walls, just such as may be seen upon barrack
walls in every part of the world. Amongst these is one of a human figure nailed
upon a cross. To add to the 'offence of the cross,' the crucified one is
represented with the head of an animal, probably that of an ass. Before it
stands the figure of a Roman legionary with one hand upraised in the attitude of
worship. Underneath is the rude, misspelt, ungrammatical inscription, Alexamenos
worships his god. It can scarcely be doubted that we have here a contemporary
caricature, executed by one of the praetorian guard, ridiculing the faith of a
Christian comrade."
Palestine - originally denoted only the sea-coast of
the land of Canaan inhabited by the Philistines (Ex. 15:14; Isa. 14:29, 31; Joel
3:4), and in this sense exclusively the Hebrew name Pelesheth (rendered
"Philistia" in Ps. 60:8; 83:7; 87:4; 108:9) occurs in the Old Testament.
Not till a late period in Jewish history was this name used to denote "the
land of the Hebrews" in general (Gen. 40:15). It is also called "the holy land"
(Zech. 2:12), the "land of Jehovah" (Hos. 9:3; Ps. 85:1), the "land of promise"
(Heb. 11:9), because promised to Abraham (Gen. 12:7; 24:7), the "land of Canaan"
(Gen. 12:5), the "land of Israel" (1 Sam. 13:19), and the "land of Judah" (Isa.
19:17).
The territory promised as an inheritance to the seed of Abraham (Gen.
15:18-21; Num. 34:1-12) was bounded on the east by the river Euphrates, on the
west by the Mediterranean, on the north by the "entrance of Hamath," and on the
south by the "river of Egypt." This extent of territory, about 60,000 square
miles, was at length conquered by David, and was ruled over also by his son
Solomon (2 Sam. 8; 1 Chr. 18; 1 Kings 4:1, 21). This vast empire was the
Promised Land; but Palestine was only a part of it, terminating in the north at
the southern extremity of the Lebanon range, and in the south in the wilderness
of Paran, thus extending in all to about 144 miles in length. Its average
breadth was about 60 miles from the Mediterranean on the west to beyond the
Jordan. It has fittingly been designated "the least of all lands." Western
Palestine, on the south of Gaza, is only about 40 miles in breadth from the
Mediterranean to the Dead Sea, narrowing gradually toward the north, where it is
only 20 miles from the sea-coast to the Jordan.
Palestine, "set in the midst" (Ezek. 5:5) of all other lands, is the most
remarkable country on the face of the earth. No single country of such an extent
has so great a variety of climate, and hence also of plant and animal life.
Moses describes it as "a good land, a land of brooks of water, of fountains and
depths that spring out of valleys and hills; a land of wheat, and barley, and
vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates; a land of oil olive, and honey; a land
wherein thou shalt not eat bread without scarceness, thou shalt not lack any
thing in it; a land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest
dig brass" (Deut. 8:7-9).
"In the time of Christ the country looked, in all probability, much as now.
The whole land consists of rounded limestone hills, fretted into countless stony
valleys, offering but rarely level tracts, of which Esdraelon alone, below
Nazareth, is large enough to be seen on the map. The original woods had for ages
disappeared, though the slopes were dotted, as now, with figs, olives, and other
fruit-trees where there was any soil. Permanent streams were even then unknown,
the passing rush of winter torrents being all that was seen among the hills. The
autumn and spring rains, caught in deep cisterns hewn out like huge underground
jars in the soft limestone, with artificial mud-banked ponds still found near
all villages, furnished water. Hills now bare, or at best rough with stunted
growth, were then terraced, so as to grow vines, olives, and grain. To-day
almost desolate, the country then teemed with population. Wine-presses cut in
the rocks, endless terraces, and the ruins of old vineyard towers are now found
amidst solitudes overgrown for ages with thorns and thistles, or with wild
shrubs and poor gnarled scrub" (Geikie's Life of Christ).
From an early period the land was inhabited by the descendants of Canaan, who
retained possession of the whole land "from Sidon to Gaza" till the time of the
conquest by Joshua, when it was occupied by the twelve tribes. Two tribes and a
half had their allotments given them by Moses on the east of the Jordan (Deut.
3:12-20; comp. Num. 1:17-46; Josh. 4:12-13). The remaining tribes had their
portion on the west of Jordan.
From the conquest till the time of Saul, about four hundred years, the people
were governed by judges. For a period of one hundred and twenty years the
kingdom retained its unity while it was ruled by Saul and David and Solomon. On
the death of Solomon, his son Rehoboam ascended the throne; but his conduct was
such that ten of the tribes revolted, and formed an independent monarchy, called
the kingdom of Israel, or the northern kingdom, the capital of which was first
Shechem and afterwards Samaria. This kingdom was destroyed. The Israelites were
carried captive by Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, B.C. 722, after an independent
existence of two hundred and fifty-three years. The place of the captives
carried away was supplied by tribes brought from the east, and thus was formed
the Samaritan nation (2 Kings 17:24-29).
Nebuchadnezzar came up against the kingdom of the two tribes, the kingdom of
Judah, the capital of which was Jerusalem, one hundred and thirty-four years
after the overthrow of the kingdom of Israel. He overthrew the city, plundered
the temple, and carried the people into captivity to Babylon (B.C. 587), where
they remained seventy years. At the close of the period of the Captivity, they
returned to their own land, under the edict of Cyrus (Ezra 1:1-4). They rebuilt
the city and temple, and restored the old Jewish commonwealth.
For a while after the Restoration the Jews were ruled by Zerubbabel, Ezra,
and Nehemiah, and afterwards by the high priests, assisted by the Sanhedrin.
After the death of Alexander the Great at Babylon (B.C. 323), his vast empire
was divided between his four generals. Egypt, Arabia, Palestine, and Coele-Syria
fell to the lot of Ptolemy Lagus. Ptolemy took possession of Palestine in B.C.
320, and carried nearly one hundred thousand of the inhabitants of Jerusalem
into Egypt. He made Alexandria the capital of his kingdom, and treated the Jews
with consideration, confirming them in the enjoyment of many privileges.
After suffering persecution at the hands of Ptolemy's successors, the Jews
threw off the Egyptian yoke, and became subject to Antiochus the Great, the king
of Syria. The cruelty and opression of the successors of Antiochus at length led
to the revolt under the Maccabees (B.C. 163), when they threw off the Syrian
yoke.
In the year B.C. 68, Palestine was reduced by Pompey the Great to a Roman
province. He laid the walls of the city in ruins, and massacred some twelve
thousand of the inhabitants. He left the temple, however, unijured. About
twenty-five years after this the Jews revolted and cast off the Roman yoke. They
were however, subdued by Herod the Great (q.v.). The city and the temple were
destroyed, and many of the inhabitants were put to death. About B.C. 20, Herod
proceeded to rebuild the city and restore the ruined temple, which in about nine
years and a half was so far completed that the sacred services could be resumed
in it (comp. John 2:20). He was succeeded by his son Archelaus, who was deprived
of his power, however, by Augustus, A.D. 6, when Palestine became a Roman
province, ruled by Roman governors or procurators. Pontius Pilate was the fifth
of these procurators. He was appointed to his office A.D. 25.
Exclusive of Idumea, the kingdom of Herod the Great comprehended the whole of
the country originally divided among the twelve tribes, which he divided into
four provinces or districts. This division was recognized so long as Palestine
was under the Roman dominion. These four provinces were, (1) Judea, the southern
portion of the country; (2) Samaria, the middle province, the northern boundary
of which ran along the hills to the south of the plain of Esdraelon; (3)
Galilee, the northern province; and (4) Peraea (a Greek name meaning the
"opposite country"), the country lying east of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. This
province was subdivided into these districts, (1) Peraea proper, lying between
the rivers Arnon and Jabbok; (2) Galaaditis (Gilead); (3) Batanaea; (4)
Gaulonitis (Jaulan); (5) Ituraea or Auranitis, the ancient Bashan; (6)
Trachonitis; (7) Abilene; (8) Decapolis, i.e., the region of the ten cities. The
whole territory of Palestine, including the portions alloted to the trans-Jordan
tribes, extended to about eleven thousand square miles. Recent exploration has
shown the territory on the west of Jordan alone to be six thousand square miles
in extent, the size of the principality of Wales.
Pallu - separated, the second son of Reuben (1 Chr.
5:3); called Phallu, Gen. 46:9. He was the father of the Phalluites (Ex. 6:14;
Num. 26:5, 8).
Palmer-worm - (Heb. gazam). The English word may
denote either a caterpillar (as rendered by the LXX.), which wanders like a
palmer or pilgrim, or which travels like pilgrims in bands (Joel 1:4; 2:25), the
wingless locusts, or the migratory locust in its larva state.
Palm tree - (Heb. tamar), the date-palm
characteristic of Palestine. It is described as "flourishing" (Ps. 92:12), tall
(Cant. 7:7), "upright" (Jer. 10:5). Its branches are a symbol of victory (Rev.
7:9). "Rising with slender stem 40 or 50, at times even 80, feet aloft, its only
branches, the feathery, snow-like, pale-green fronds from 6 to 12 feet long,
bending from its top, the palm attracts the eye wherever it is seen." The whole
land of Palestine was called by the Greeks and Romans Phoenicia, i.e., "the land
of palms." Tadmor in the desert was called by the Greeks and Romans Palmyra,
i.e., "the city of palms." The finest specimens of this tree grew at Jericho
(Deut. 34:3) and Engedi and along the banks of the Jordan. Branches of the palm
tree were carried at the feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:40). At our Lord's
triumphal entrance into Jerusalem the crowds took palm branches, and went forth
to meet him, crying, "Hosanna: Blessed is the King of Israel that cometh in the
name of the Lord" (Matt. 21:8; John 12:13). (See DATE.)
Palm trees, The city of - the name given to Jericho
(q.v.), Deut. 34:3; Judg. 1:16; 3:13.
Palsy - a shorter form of "paralysis." Many persons
thus afflicted were cured by our Lord (Matt. 4:24; 8:5-13; 9:2-7; Mark 2:3-11;
Luke 7:2-10; John 5:5-7) and the apostles (Acts 8:7; 9:33, 34).
Palti - deliverance from the Lord, one of the spies
representing the tribe of Benjamin (Num. 13:9).
Paltiel - deliverance of God, the prince of Issachar
who assisted "to divide the land by inheritance" (Num. 34:26).
Paltite - the designation of one of David's heroes (2
Sam. 23:26); called also the Pelonite (1 Chr. 11:27).
Pamphylia - Paul and his company, loosing from
Paphos, sailed north-west and came to Perga, the capital of Pamphylia (Acts
13:13, 14), a province about the middle of the southern sea-board of Asia Minor.
It lay between Lycia on the west and Cilicia on the east. There were strangers
from Pamphylia at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (2:10).
Pan - a vessel of metal or earthenware used in
culinary operations; a cooking-pan or frying-pan frequently referred to in the
Old Testament (Lev. 2:5; 6:21; Num. 11:8; 1 Sam. 2:14, etc.).
The "ash-pans" mentioned in Ex. 27:3 were made of copper, and were used in
connection with the altar of burnt-offering. The "iron pan" mentioned in Ezek.
4:3 (marg., "flat plate " or "slice") was probably a mere plate of iron used for
baking. The "fire-pans" of Ex. 27:3 were fire-shovels used for taking up coals.
The same Hebrew word is rendered "snuff-dishes" (25:38; 37:23) and "censers"
(Lev. 10:1; 16:12; Num. 4:14, etc.). These were probably simply metal vessels
employed for carrying burning embers from the brazen altar to the altar of
incense.
The "frying-pan" mentioned in Lev. 2:7; 7:9 was a pot for boiling.
Pannag - (Ezek. 27:17; marg. R.V., "perhaps a kind of
confection") the Jews explain as the name of a kind of sweet pastry. Others take
it as the name of some place, identifying it with Pingi, on the road between
Damascus and Baalbec. "Pannaga" is the Sanscrit name of an aromatic plant (comp.
Gen. 43:11).
Paper - The expression in the Authorized Version
(Isa. 19:7), "the paper reeds by the brooks," is in the Revised Version more
correctly "the meadows by the Nile." The words undoubtedly refer to a grassy
place on the banks of the Nile fit for pasturage.
In 2 John 1:12 the word is used in its proper sense. The material so referred
to was manufactured from the papyrus, and hence its name. The papyrus (Heb.
gome) was a kind of bulrush (q.v.). It is mentioned by Job (8:11) and Isaiah
(35:7). It was used for many purposes. This plant (Papyrus Nilotica) is now
unknown in Egypt; no trace of it can be found. The unaccountable disappearance
of this plant from Egypt was foretold by Isaiah (19:6, 7) as a part of the
divine judgment on that land. The most extensive papyrus growths now known are
in the marshes at the northern end of the lake of Merom.
Paphos - the capital of the island of Cyprus, and
therefore the residence of the Roman governor. It was visited by Paul and
Barnabas on their first missionary tour (Acts 13:6). It is new Paphos which is
here meant. It lay on the west coast of the island, about 8 miles north of old
Paphos. Its modern name is Baffa.
Parable - (Gr. parabole), a placing beside; a
comparison; equivalent to the Heb. mashal, a similitude. In the Old Testament
this is used to denote (1) a proverb (1 Sam. 10:12; 24:13; 2 Chr. 7:20), (2) a
prophetic utterance (Num. 23:7; Ezek. 20:49), (3) an enigmatic saying (Ps. 78:2;
Prov. 1:6). In the New Testament, (1) a proverb (Mark 7:17; Luke 4:23), (2) a
typical emblem (Heb. 9:9; 11:19), (3) a similitude or allegory (Matt. 15:15;
24:32; Mark 3:23; Luke 5:36; 14:7); (4) ordinarily, in a more restricted sense,
a comparison of earthly with heavenly things, "an earthly story with a heavenly
meaning," as in the parables of our Lord.
Instruction by parables has been in use from the earliest times. A large
portion of our Lord's public teaching consisted of parables. He himself explains
his reasons for this in his answer to the inquiry of the disciples, "Why
speakest thou to them in parables?" (Matt. 13:13-15; Mark 4:11, 12; Luke 8:9,
10). He followed in so doing the rule of the divine procedures, as recorded in
Matt. 13:13.
The parables uttered by our Lord are all recorded in the synoptical (i.e.,
the first three) Gospels. The fourth Gospel contains no parable properly so
called, although the illustration of the good shepherd (John 10:1-16) has all
the essential features of a parable. (See List of Parables in Appendix.)
Paradise - a Persian word (pardes), properly meaning
a "pleasure-ground" or "park" or "king's garden." (See EDEN.)
It came in course of time to be used as a name for the world of happiness and
rest hereafter (Luke 23:43; 2 Cor. 12:4; Rev. 2:7). For "garden" in Gen. 2:8 the
LXX. has "paradise."
Parah - the heifer, a town in Benjamin (Josh. 18:23),
supposed to be identical with the ruins called Far'ah, about 6 miles north-east
of Jerusalem, in the Wady Far'ah, which is a branch of the Wady Kelt.
Paran - abounding in foliage, or abounding in
caverns, (Gen. 21:21), a desert tract forming the north-eastern division of the
peninsula of Sinai, lying between the 'Arabah on the east and the wilderness of
Shur on the west. It is intersected in a north-western direction by the Wady
el-'Arish. It bears the modern name of Badiet et-Tih, i.e., "the desert of the
wanderings." This district, through which the children of Israel wandered, lay
three days' march from Sinai (Num. 10:12, 33). From Kadesh, in this wilderness,
spies (q.v.) were sent to spy the land (13:3, 26). Here, long afterwards, David
found refuge from Saul (1 Sam. 25:1, 4).
Paran, Mount - probably the hilly region or upland
wilderness on the north of the desert of Paran forming the southern boundary of
the Promised Land (Deut. 33:2; Hab. 3:3).
Parbar - (1 Chr. 26:18), a place apparently connected
with the temple, probably a "suburb" (q.v.), as the word is rendered in 2 Kings
23:11; a space between the temple wall and the wall of the court; an open
portico into which the chambers of the official persons opened (1 Chr. 26:18).
Parched ground - (Isa. 35:7), Heb. sharab, a
"mirage", a phenomenon caused by the refraction of the rays of the sun on the
glowing sands of the desert, causing them suddenly to assume the appearance of a
beautiful lake. It is called by the modern Arabs by the same Hebrew name
serab.
Parchment - a skin prepared for writing on; so called
from Pergamos (q.v.), where this was first done (2 Tim. 4:13).
Pardon - the forgiveness of sins granted freely (Isa.
43:25), readily (Neh. 9:17; Ps. 86:5), abundantly (Isa. 55:7; Rom. 5:20). Pardon
is an act of a sovereign, in pure sovereignty, granting simply a remission of
the penalty due to sin, but securing neither honour nor reward to the pardoned.
Justification (q.v.), on the other hand, is the act of a judge, and not of a
sovereign, and includes pardon and, at the same time, a title to all the rewards
and blessings promised in the covenant of life.
Parlour - (from the Fr. parler, "to speak") denotes
an "audience chamber," but that is not the import of the Hebrew word so
rendered. It corresponds to what the Turks call a kiosk, as in Judg. 3:20 (the
"summer parlour"), or as in the margin of the Revised Version ("the upper
chamber of cooling"), a small room built on the roof of the house, with open
windows to catch the breeze, and having a door communicating with the outside by
which persons seeking an audience may be admitted. While Eglon was resting in
such a parlour, Ehud, under pretence of having a message from God to him, was
admitted into his presence, and murderously plunged his dagger into his body
(21, 22).
The "inner parlours" in 1 Chr. 28:11 were the small rooms or chambers which
Solomon built all round two sides and one end of the temple (1 Kings 6:5), "side
chambers;" or they may have been, as some think, the porch and the holy place.
In 1 Sam. 9:22 the Revised Version reads "guest chamber," a chamber at the
high place specially used for sacrificial feasts.
Parmashta - strong-fisted, a son of Haman, slain in
Shushan (Esther 9:9).
Parmenas - constant, one of the seven "deacons" (Acts
6:5).
Parshandatha - an interpreter of the law, the eldest
of Haman's sons, slain in Shushan (Esther 9:7).
Parthians - were present in Jerusalem at Pentecost
(Acts 2:9). Parthia lay on the east of Media and south of Hyrcania, which
separated it from the Caspian Sea. It corresponded with the western half of the
modern Khorasan, and now forms a part of Persia.
Partridge - (Heb. kore, i.e., "caller"). This bird,
unlike our own partridge, is distinguished by "its ringing call-note, which in
early morning echoes from cliff to cliff amidst the barrenness of the wilderness
of Judea and the glens of the forest of Carmel" hence its Hebrew name. This name
occurs only twice in Scripture.
In 1 Sam. 26:20 "David alludes to the mode of chase practised now, as of old,
when the partridge, continuously chased, was at length, when fatigued, knocked
down by sticks thrown along the ground." It endeavours to save itself "by
running, in preference to flight, unless when suddenly started. It is not an
inhabitant of the plain or the corn-field, but of rocky hill-sides" (Tristram's
Nat. Hist.).
In Jer. 17:11 the prophet is illustrating the fact that riches unlawfully
acquired are precarious and short-lived. The exact nature of the illustration
cannot be precisely determined. Some interpret the words as meaning that the
covetous man will be as surely disappointed as the partridge which gathers in
eggs, not of her own laying, and is unable to hatch them; others (Tristram),
with more probability, as denoting that the man who enriches himself by unjust
means "will as surely be disappointed as the partridge which commences to sit,
but is speedily robbed of her hopes of a brood" by her eggs being stolen away
from her.
The commonest partridge in Palestine is the Caccabis saxatilis, the Greek
partridge. The partridge of the wilderness (Ammo-perdix heyi) is a smaller
species. Both are essentially mountain and rock birds, thus differing from the
English partridge, which loves cultivated fields.
Paruah - flourishing, the father of Jehoshaphat,
appointed to provide monthly supplies for Solomon from the tribe of Issachar (1
Kings 4:17).
Parvaim - the name of a country from which Solomon
obtained gold for the temple (2 Chr. 3:6). Some have identified it with Ophir,
but it is uncertain whether it is even the name of a place. It may simply, as
some think, denote "Oriental regions."
Pasach - clearing, one of the sons of Japhlet, of the
tribe of Asher (1 Chr. 7:33).
Pas-dammim - the border of blood = Ephes-dammim
(q.v.), between Shochoh and Azekah (1 Sam. 17:1; 1 Chr. 11:13).
Pashur - release. (1.) The son of Immer (probably the
same as Amariah, Neh. 10:3; 12:2), the head of one of the priestly courses, was
"chief governor [Heb. paqid nagid, meaning "deputy governor"] of the temple"
(Jer. 20:1, 2). At this time the nagid, or "governor," of the temple was
Seraiah the high priest (1 Chr. 6:14), and Pashur was his paqid, or
"deputy." Enraged at the plainness with which Jeremiah uttered his solemn
warnings of coming judgements, because of the abounding iniquity of the times,
Pashur ordered the temple police to seize him, and after inflicting on him
corporal punishment (forty stripes save one, Deut. 25:3; comp. 2 Cor. 11:24), to
put him in the stocks in the high gate of Benjamin, where he remained all night.
On being set free in the morning, Jeremiah went to Pashur (Jer. 20:3, 5), and
announced to him that God had changed his name to Magor-missabib, i.e., "terror
on every side." The punishment that fell upon him was probably remorse, when he
saw the ruin he had brought upon his country by advising a close alliance with
Egypt in opposition to the counsels of Jeremiah (20:4-6). He was carried captive
to Babylon, and died there.
(2.) A priest sent by king Zedekiah to Jeremiah to inquire of the Lord (1
Chr. 24:9; Jer. 21:1; 38:1-6). He advised that the prophet should be put to
death.
(3.) The father of Gedaliah. He was probably the same as (1).
Passage - denotes in Josh. 22:11, as is generally
understood, the place where the children of Israel passed over Jordan. The words
"the passage of" are, however, more correctly rendered "by the side of," or "at
the other side of," thus designating the position of the great altar erected by
the eastern tribes on their return home. This word also designates the fords of
the Jordan to the south of the Sea of Galilee (Judg. 12:5, 6), and a pass or
rocky defile (1 Sam. 13:23; 14:4). "Passages" in Jer. 22:20 is in the Revised
Version more correctly "Abarim" (q.v.), a proper name.
Passion - Only once found, in Acts 1:3, meaning
suffering, referring to the sufferings of our Lord.
Passover - the name given to the chief of the three
great historical annual festivals of the Jews. It was kept in remembrance of the
Lord's passing over the houses of the Israelites (Ex. 12:13) when the first born
of all the Egyptians were destroyed. It is called also the "feast of unleavened
bread" (Ex. 23:15; Mark 14:1; Acts 12:3), because during its celebration no
leavened bread was to be eaten or even kept in the household (Ex. 12:15). The
word afterwards came to denote the lamb that was slain at the feast (Mark
14:12-14; 1 Cor. 5:7).
A detailed account of the institution of this feast is given in Ex. 12 and
13. It was afterwards incorporated in the ceremonial law (Lev. 23:4-8) as one of
the great festivals of the nation. In after times many changes seem to have
taken place as to the mode of its celebration as compared with its first
celebration (comp. Deut. 16:2, 5, 6; 2 Chr. 30:16; Lev. 23:10-14; Num. 9:10, 11;
28:16-24). Again, the use of wine (Luke 22:17, 20), of sauce with the bitter
herbs (John 13:26), and the service of praise were introduced.
There is recorded only one celebration of this feast between the Exodus and
the entrance into Canaan, namely, that mentioned in Num. 9:5. (See JOSIAH.)
It was primarily a commemorative ordinance, reminding the children of Israel of
their deliverance out of Egypt; but it was, no doubt, also a type of the great
deliverance wrought by the Messiah for all his people from the doom of death on
account of sin, and from the bondage of sin itself, a worse than Egyptian
bondage (1 Cor. 5:7; John 1:29; 19:32-36; 1 Pet. 1:19; Gal. 4:4, 5). The
appearance of Jerusalem on the occasion of the Passover in the time of our Lord
is thus fittingly described: "The city itself and the neighbourhood became more
and more crowded as the feast approached, the narrow streets and dark arched
bazaars showing the same throng of men of all nations as when Jesus had first
visited Jerusalem as a boy. Even the temple offered a strange sight at this
season, for in parts of the outer courts a wide space was covered with pens for
sheep, goats, and cattle to be used for offerings. Sellers shouted the merits of
their beasts, sheep bleated, oxen lowed. Sellers of doves also had a place set
apart for them. Potters offered a choice from huge stacks of clay dishes and
ovens for roasting and eating the Passover lamb. Booths for wine, oil, salt, and
all else needed for sacrifices invited customers. Persons going to and from the
city shortened their journey by crossing the temple grounds, often carrying
burdens...Stalls to change foreign money into the shekel of the temple, which
alone could be paid to the priests, were numerous, the whole confusion making
the sanctuary like a noisy market" (Geikie's Life of Christ).
Patara - a city on the south-west coast of Lycia at
which Paul landed on his return from his third missionary journey (Acts 21:1,
2). Here he found a larger vessel, which was about to sail across the open sea
to the coast of Phoenicia. In this vessel he set forth, and reached the city of
Tyre in perhaps two or three days.
Pathros - the name generally given to Upper Egypt
(the Thebaid of the Greeks), as distinguished from Matsor, or Lower Egypt (Isa.
11:11; Jer. 44:1, 15; Ezek. 30:14), the two forming Mizraim. After the
destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, colonies of Jews settled "in the
country of Pathros" and other parts of Egypt.
Patmos - a small rocky and barren island, one of the
group called the "Sporades," in the AEgean Sea. It is mentioned in Scripture
only in Rev. 1:9. It was on this island, to which John was banished by the
emperor Domitian (A.D. 95), that he received from God the wondrous revelation
recorded in his book. This has naturally invested it with the deepest interest
for all time. It is now called Patmo. (See JOHN.)
Patriarch - a name employed in the New Testament with
reference to Abraham (Heb. 7:4), the sons of Jacob (Acts 7:8, 9), and to David
(2:29). This name is generally applied to the progenitors of families or "heads
of the fathers" (Josh. 14:1) mentioned in Scripture, and they are spoken of as
antediluvian (from Adam to Noah) and post-diluvian (from Noah to Jacob)
patriachs. But the expression "the patriarch," by way of eminence, is applied to
the twelve sons of Jacob, or to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
"Patriachal longevity presents itself as one of the most striking of the
facts concerning mankind which the early history of the Book of Genesis places
before us...There is a large amount of consentient tradition to the effect that
the life of man was originally far more prolonged than it is at present,
extending to at least several hundred years. The Babylonians, Egyptians, and
Chinese exaggerated these hundreds into thousands. The Greeks and Romans, with
more moderation, limited human life within a thousand or eight hundred years.
The Hindus still farther shortened the term. Their books taught that in the
first age of the world man was free from diseases, and lived ordinarily four
hundred years; in the second age the term of life was reduced from four hundred
to three hundred; in the third it became two hundred; in the fourth and last it
was brought down to one hundred" (Rawlinson's Historical Illustrations).
Patrobas - a Christian at Rome to whom Paul sent
salutations (Rom. 16:14).
Pau - (Gen. 36:39) or Pai (1 Chr. 1:50), bleating, an
Edomitish city ruled over by Hadar.
Paul - =Saul (q.v.) was born about the same time as
our Lord. His circumcision-name was Saul, and probably the name Paul was also
given to him in infancy "for use in the Gentile world," as "Saul" would be his
Hebrew home-name. He was a native of Tarsus, the capital of Cilicia, a Roman
province in the south-east of Asia Minor. That city stood on the banks of the
river Cydnus, which was navigable thus far; hence it became a centre of
extensive commercial traffic with many countries along the shores of the
Mediterranean, as well as with the countries of central Asia Minor. It thus
became a city distinguished for the wealth of its inhabitants.
Tarsus was also the seat of a famous university, higher in reputation even
than the universities of Athens and Alexandria, the only others that then
existed. Here Saul was born, and here he spent his youth, doubtless enjoying the
best education his native city could afford. His father was of the straitest
sect of the Jews, a Pharisee, of the tribe of Benjamin, of pure and unmixed
Jewish blood (Acts 23:6; Phil. 3:5). We learn nothing regarding his mother; but
there is reason to conclude that she was a pious woman, and that, like-minded
with her husband, she exercised all a mother influence in moulding the character
of her son, so that he could afterwards speak of himself as being, from his
youth up, "touching the righteousness which is in the law, blameless" (Phil.
3:6).
We read of his sister and his sister's son (Acts 23:16), and of other
relatives (Rom. 16:7, 11, 12). Though a Jew, his father was a Roman citizen. How
he obtained this privilege we are not informed. "It might be bought, or won by
distinguished service to the state, or acquired in several other ways; at all
events, his son was freeborn. It was a valuable privilege, and one that was to
prove of great use to Paul, although not in the way in which his father might
have been expected to desire him to make use of it." Perhaps the most natural
career for the youth to follow was that of a merchant. "But it was decided
that...he should go to college and become a rabbi, that is, a minister, a
teacher, and a lawyer all in one."
According to Jewish custom, however, he learned a trade before entering on
the more direct preparation for the sacred profession. The trade he acquired was
the making of tents from goats' hair cloth, a trade which was one of the
commonest in Tarsus.
His preliminary education having been completed, Saul was sent, when about
thirteen years of age probably, to the great Jewish school of sacred learning at
Jerusalem as a student of the law. Here he became a pupil of the celebrated
rabbi Gamaliel, and here he spent many years in an elaborate study of the
Scriptures and of the many questions concerning them with which the rabbis
exercised themselves. During these years of diligent study he lived "in all good
conscience," unstained by the vices of that great city.
After the period of his student-life expired, he probably left Jerusalem for
Tarsus, where he may have been engaged in connection with some synagogue for
some years. But we find him back again at Jerusalem very soon after the death of
our Lord. Here he now learned the particulars regarding the crucifixion, and the
rise of the new sect of the "Nazarenes."
For some two years after Pentecost, Christianity was quietly spreading its
influence in Jerusalem. At length Stephen, one of the seven deacons, gave forth
more public and aggressive testimony that Jesus was the Messiah, and this led to
much excitement among the Jews and much disputation in their synagogues.
Persecution arose against Stephen and the followers of Christ generally, in
which Saul of Tarsus took a prominent part. He was at this time probably a
member of the great Sanhedrin, and became the active leader in the furious
persecution by which the rulers then sought to exterminate Christianity.
But the object of this persecution also failed. "They that were scattered
abroad went everywhere preaching the word." The anger of the persecutor was
thereby kindled into a fiercer flame. Hearing that fugitives had taken refuge in
Damascus, he obtained from the chief priest letters authorizing him to proceed
thither on his persecuting career. This was a long journey of about 130 miles,
which would occupy perhaps six days, during which, with his few attendants, he
steadily went onward, "breathing out threatenings and slaughter." But the crisis
of his life was at hand. He had reached the last stage of his journey, and was
within sight of Damascus. As he and his companions rode on, suddenly at mid-day
a brilliant light shone round them, and Saul was laid prostrate in terror on the
ground, a voice sounding in his ears, "Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?" The
risen Saviour was there, clothed in the vesture of his glorified humanity. In
answer to the anxious inquiry of the stricken persecutor, "Who art thou, Lord?"
he said, "I am Jesus whom thou persecutest" (Acts 9:5; 22:8; 26:15).
This was the moment of his conversion, the most solemn in all his life.
Blinded by the dazzling light (Acts 9:8), his companions led him into the city,
where, absorbed in deep thought for three days, he neither ate nor drank (9:11).
Ananias, a disciple living in Damascus, was informed by a vision of the change
that had happened to Saul, and was sent to him to open his eyes and admit him by
baptism into the Christian church (9:11-16). The whole purpose of his life was
now permanently changed.
Immediately after his conversion he retired into the solitudes of Arabia
(Gal. 1:17), perhaps of "Sinai in Arabia," for the purpose, probably, of devout
study and meditation on the marvellous revelation that had been made to him. "A
veil of thick darkness hangs over this visit to Arabia. Of the scenes among
which he moved, of the thoughts and occupations which engaged him while there,
of all the circumstances of a crisis which must have shaped the whole tenor of
his after-life, absolutely nothing is known. 'Immediately,' says St. Paul, 'I
went away into Arabia.' The historian passes over the incident [comp. Acts 9:23
and 1 Kings 11:38, 39]. It is a mysterious pause, a moment of suspense, in the
apostle's history, a breathless calm, which ushers in the tumultuous storm of
his active missionary life." Coming back, after three years, to Damascus, he
began to preach the gospel "boldly in the name of Jesus" (Acts 9:27), but was
soon obliged to flee (9:25; 2 Cor. 11:33) from the Jews and betake himself to
Jerusalem. Here he tarried for three weeks, but was again forced to flee (Acts
9:28, 29) from persecution. He now returned to his native Tarsus (Gal. 1:21),
where, for probably about three years, we lose sight of him. The time had not
yet come for his entering on his great life-work of preaching the gospel to the
Gentiles.
At length the city of Antioch, the capital of Syria, became the scene of
great Christian activity. There the gospel gained a firm footing, and the cause
of Christ prospered. Barnabas (q.v.), who had been sent from Jerusalem to
superintend the work at Antioch, found it too much for him, and remembering
Saul, he set out to Tarsus to seek for him. He readily responded to the call
thus addressed to him, and came down to Antioch, which for "a whole year" became
the scene of his labours, which were crowned with great success. The disciples
now, for the first time, were called "Christians" (Acts 11:26).
The church at Antioch now proposed to send out missionaries to the Gentiles,
and Saul and Barnabas, with John Mark as their attendant, were chosen for this
work. This was a great epoch in the history of the church. Now the disciples
began to give effect to the Master's command: "Go ye into all the world, and
preach the gospel to every creature."
The three missionaries went forth on the first missionary tour. They sailed
from Seleucia, the seaport of Antioch, across to Cyprus, some 80 miles to the
south-west. Here at Paphos, Sergius Paulus, the Roman proconsul, was converted,
and now Saul took the lead, and was ever afterwards called Paul. The
missionaries now crossed to the mainland, and then proceeded 6 or 7 miles up the
river Cestrus to Perga (Acts 13:13), where John Mark deserted the work and
returned to Jerusalem. The two then proceeded about 100 miles inland, passing
through Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The towns mentioned in this tour are
the Pisidian Antioch, where Paul delivered his first address of which we have
any record (13:16-51; comp. 10:30-43), Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. They returned
by the same route to see and encourage the converts they had made, and ordain
elders in every city to watch over the churches which had been gathered. From
Perga they sailed direct for Antioch, from which they had set out.
After remaining "a long time", probably till A.D. 50 or 51, in Antioch, a
great controversy broke out in the church there regarding the relation of the
Gentiles to the Mosaic law. For the purpose of obtaining a settlement of this
question, Paul and Barnabas were sent as deputies to consult the church at
Jerusalem. The council or synod which was there held (Acts 15) decided against
the Judaizing party; and the deputies, accompanied by Judas and Silas, returned
to Antioch, bringing with them the decree of the council.
After a short rest at Antioch, Paul said to Barnabas: "Let us go again and
visit our brethren in every city where we have preached the word of the Lord,
and see how they do." Mark proposed again to accompany them; but Paul refused to
allow him to go. Barnabas was resolved to take Mark, and thus he and Paul had a
sharp contention. They separated, and never again met. Paul, however, afterwards
speaks with honour of Barnabas, and sends for Mark to come to him at Rome (Col.
4:10; 2 Tim. 4:11).
Paul took with him Silas, instead of Barnabas, and began his second
missionary journey about A.D. 51. This time he went by land, revisiting the
churches he had already founded in Asia. But he longed to enter into "regions
beyond," and still went forward through Phrygia and Galatia (16:6). Contrary to
his intention, he was constrained to linger in Galatia (q.v.), on account of
some bodily affliction (Gal. 4:13, 14). Bithynia, a populous province on the
shore of the Black Sea, lay now before him, and he wished to enter it; but the
way was shut, the Spirit in some manner guiding him in another direction, till
he came down to the shores of the AEgean and arrived at Troas, on the
north-western coast of Asia Minor (Acts 16:8). Of this long journey from Antioch
to Troas we have no account except some references to it in his Epistle to the
Galatians (4:13).
As he waited at Troas for indications of the will of God as to his future
movements, he saw, in the vision of the night, a man from the opposite shores of
Macedonia standing before him, and heard him cry, "Come over, and help us" (Acts
16:9). Paul recognized in this vision a message from the Lord, and the very next
day set sail across the Hellespont, which separated him from Europe, and carried
the tidings of the gospel into the Western world. In Macedonia, churches were
planted in Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea. Leaving this province, Paul passed
into Achaia, "the paradise of genius and renown." He reached Athens, but quitted
it after, probably, a brief sojourn (17:17-31). The Athenians had received him
with cold disdain, and he never visited that city again. He passed over to
Corinth, the seat of the Roman government of Achaia, and remained there a year
and a half, labouring with much success. While at Corinth, he wrote his two
epistles to the church of Thessalonica, his earliest apostolic letters, and then
sailed for Syria, that he might be in time to keep the feast of Pentecost at
Jerusalem. He was accompanied by Aquila and Priscilla, whom he left at Ephesus,
at which he touched, after a voyage of thirteen or fifteen days. He landed at
Caesarea, and went up to Jerusalem, and having "saluted the church" there, and
kept the feast, he left for Antioch, where he abode "some time" (Acts 18:20-23).
He then began his third missionary tour. He journeyed by land in the "upper
coasts" (the more eastern parts) of Asia Minor, and at length made his way to
Ephesus, where he tarried for no less than three years, engaged in ceaseless
Christian labour. "This city was at the time the Liverpool of the Mediterranean.
It possessed a splendid harbour, in which was concentrated the traffic of the
sea which was then the highway of the nations; and as Liverpool has behind her
the great towns of Lancashire, so had Ephesus behind and around her such cities
as those mentioned along with her in the epistles to the churches in the book of
Revelation, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. It
was a city of vast wealth, and it was given over to every kind of pleasure, the
fame of its theatres and race-course being world-wide" (Stalker's Life of St.
Paul). Here a "great door and effectual" was opened to the apostle. His
fellow-labourers aided him in his work, carrying the gospel to Colosse and
Laodicea and other places which they could reach.
Very shortly before his departure from Ephesus, the apostle wrote his First
Epistle to the Corinthians (q.v.). The silversmiths, whose traffic in the little
images which they made was in danger (see DEMETRIUS ¯T0001013), organized a riot
against Paul, and he left the city, and proceeded to Troas (2 Cor. 2:12), whence
after some time he went to meet Titus in Macedonia. Here, in consequence of the
report Titus brought from Corinth, he wrote his second epistle to that church.
Having spent probably most of the summer and autumn in Macedonia, visiting the
churches there, specially the churches of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea,
probably penetrating into the interior, to the shores of the Adriatic (Rom.
15:19), he then came into Greece, where he abode three month, spending probably
the greater part of this time in Corinth (Acts 20:2). During his stay in this
city he wrote his Epistle to the Galatians, and also the great Epistle to the
Romans. At the end of the three months he left Achaia for Macedonia, thence
crossed into Asia Minor, and touching at Miletus, there addressed the Ephesian
presbyters, whom he had sent for to meet him (Acts 20:17), and then sailed for
Tyre, finally reaching Jerusalem, probably in the spring of A.D. 58.
While at Jerusalem, at the feast of Pentecost, he was almost murdered by a
Jewish mob in the temple. (See TEMPLE, HEROD'S ¯T0003611.) Rescued from their
violence by the Roman commandant, he was conveyed as a prisoner to Caesarea,
where, from various causes, he was detained a prisoner for two years in Herod's
praetorium (Acts 23:35). "Paul was not kept in close confinement; he had at
least the range of the barracks in which he was detained. There we can imagine
him pacing the ramparts on the edge of the Mediterranean, and gazing wistfully
across the blue waters in the direction of Macedonia, Achaia, and Ephesus, where
his spiritual children were pining for him, or perhaps encountering dangers in
which they sorely needed his presence. It was a mysterious providence which thus
arrested his energies and condemned the ardent worker to inactivity; yet we can
now see the reason for it. Paul was needing rest. After twenty years of
incessant evangelization, he required leisure to garner the harvest of
experience...During these two years he wrote nothing; it was a time of internal
mental activity and silent progress" (Stalker's Life of St. Paul).
At the end of these two years Felix (q.v.) was succeeded in the governorship
of Palestine by Porcius Festus, before whom the apostle was again heard. But
judging it right at this crisis to claim the privilege of a Roman citizen, he
appealed to the emperor (Acts 25:11). Such an appeal could not be disregarded,
and Paul was at once sent on to Rome under the charge of one Julius, a centurion
of the "Augustan cohort." After a long and perilous voyage, he at length reached
the imperial city in the early spring, probably, of A.D. 61. Here he was
permitted to occupy his own hired house, under constant military custody. This
privilege was accorded to him, no doubt, because he was a Roman citizen, and as
such could not be put into prison without a trial. The soldiers who kept guard
over Paul were of course changed at frequent intervals, and thus he had the
opportunity of preaching the gospel to many of them during these "two whole
years," and with the blessed result of spreading among the imperial guards, and
even in Caesar's household, an interest in the truth (Phil. 1:13). His rooms
were resorted to by many anxious inquirers, both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 28:23,
30, 31), and thus his imprisonment "turned rather to the furtherance of the
gospel," and his "hired house" became the centre of a gracious influence which
spread over the whole city. According to a Jewish tradition, it was situated on
the borders of the modern Ghetto, which has been the Jewish quarters in Rome
from the time of Pompey to the present day. During this period the apostle wrote
his epistles to the Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians, and to Philemon, and
probably also to the Hebrews.
This first imprisonment came at length to a close, Paul having been
acquitted, probably because no witnesses appeared against him. Once more he set
out on his missionary labours, probably visiting western and eastern Europe and
Asia Minor. During this period of freedom he wrote his First Epistle to Timothy
and his Epistle to Titus. The year of his release was signalized by the burning
of Rome, which Nero saw fit to attribute to the Christians. A fierce persecution
now broke out against the Christians. Paul was siezed, and once more conveyed to
Rome a prisoner. During this imprisonment he probably wrote the Second Epistle
to Timothy, the last he ever wrote. "There can be little doubt that he appered
again at Nero's bar, and this time the charge did not break down. In all history
there is not a more startling illustration of the irony of human life than this
scene of Paul at the bar of Nero. On the judgment-seat, clad in the imperial
purple, sat a man who, in a bad world, had attained the eminence of being the
very worst and meanest being in it, a man stained with every crime, a man whose
whole being was so steeped in every nameable and unnameable vice, that body and
soul of him were, as some one said at the time, nothing but a compound of mud
and blood; and in the prisoner's dock stood the best man the world possessed,
his hair whitened with labours for the good of men and the glory of God. The
trial ended: Paul was condemned, and delivered over to the executioner. He was
led out of the city, with a crowd of the lowest rabble at his heels. The fatal
spot was reached; he knelt beside the block; the headsman's axe gleamed in the
sun and fell; and the head of the apostle of the world rolled down in the dust"
(probably A.D. 66), four years before the fall of Jerusalem.
Pavement - It was the custom of the Roman governors
to erect their tribunals in open places, as the market-place, the circus, or
even the highway. Pilate caused his seat of judgment to be set down in a place
called "the Pavement" (John 19:13) i.e., a place paved with a mosaic of coloured
stones. It was probably a place thus prepared in front of the "judgment hall."
(See GABBATHA.)
Pavilion - a tent or tabernacle (2 Sam. 22:12; 1
Kings 20:12-16), or enclosure (Ps. 18:11; 27:5). In Jer. 43:10 it probably
denotes the canopy suspended over the judgement-seat of the king.
Peace offerings - (Heb. shelamim), detailed
regulations regarding given in Lev. 3; 7:11-21, 29-34. They were of three kinds,
(1) eucharistic or thanksgiving offerings, expressive of gratitude for blessings
received; (2) in fulfilment of a vow, but expressive also of thanks for benefits
recieved; and (3) free-will offerings, something spontaneously devoted to God.
Peacock - (Heb. tuk, apparently borrowed from the
Tamil tokei). This bird is indigenous to India. It was brought to Solomon by his
ships from Tarshish (1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21), which in this case was
probably a district on the Malabar coast of India, or in Ceylon. The word so
rendered in Job 39:13 literally means wild, tumultuous crying, and properly
denotes the female ostrich (q.v.).
Pearl - (Heb. gabish, Job 28:18; Gr. margarites,
Matt. 7:6; 13:46; Rev. 21:21). The pearl oyster is found in the Persian Gulf and
the Red Sea. Its shell is the "mother of pearl," which is of great value for
ornamental purposes (1 Tim. 2:9; Rev. 17:4). Each shell contains eight or ten
pearls of various sizes.
Peculiar - as used in the phrase "peculiar people" in
1 Pet. 2:9, is derived from the Lat. peculium, and denotes, as rendered in the
Revised Version ("a people for God's own possession"), a special possession or
property. The church is the "property" of God, his "purchased possession" (Eph.
1:14; R.V., "God's own possession").
Pedahel - redeemed of God, the son of Ammihud, a
prince of Naphtali (Num. 34:28).
Pedahzur - rock of redemption, the father of Gamaliel
and prince of Manasseh at the time of the Exodus (Num. 1:10; 2:20).
Pedaiah - redemption of the Lord. (1.) The father of
Zebudah, who was the wife of Josiah and mother of king Jehoiakim (2 Kings
23:36).
(2.) The father of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3:17-19).
(3.). The father of Joel, ruler of the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr. 27:20).
(4.) Neh. 3:25.
(5.) A Levite (8:4).
(6.) A Benjamite (11:7).
(7.) A Levite (13:13).
Pekah - open-eyed, the son of Remaliah a captain in
the army of Pekahiah, king of Israel, whom he slew, with the aid of a band of
Gileadites, and succeeded (B.C. 758) on the throne (2 Kings 15:25). Seventeen
years after this he entered into an alliance with Rezin, king of Syria, and took
part with him in besieging Jerusalem (2 Kings 15:37; 16:5). But Tiglath-pilser,
who was in alliance with Ahaz, king of Judah, came up against Pekah, and carried
away captive many of the inhabitants of his kingdom (2 Kings 15:29). This was
the beginning of the "Captivity." Soon after this Pekah was put to death by
Hoshea, the son of Elah, who usurped the throne (2 Kings 15:30; 16:1-9. Comp.
Isa. 7:16; 8:4; 9:12). He is supposed by some to have been the "shephard"
mentioned in Zech. 11:16.
Pekahiah - the Lord opened his eyes, the son and
successor of Menahem on the throne of Israel. He was murdered in the royal
palace of Samaria by Pekah, one of the captains of his army (2 Kings 15:23-26),
after a reign of two years (B.C. 761-759). He "did that which was evil in the
sight of the Lord."
Pekod - probably a place in Babylonia (Jer. 50:21;
Ezek. 23:23). It is the opinion, however, of some that this word signifies
"visitation," "punishment," and allegorically "designates Babylon as the city
which was to be destroyed."
Pelaiah - distinguished of the Lord. (1.) One of
David's posterity (1 Chr. 3:24).
(2.) A Levite who expounded the law (Neh. 8:7).
Pelatiah - deliverance of the Lord. (1.) A son of
Hananiah and grandson of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3:21).
(2.) A captain of "the sons of Simeon" (4:42).
(3.) Neh. 10:22.
(4.) One of the twenty-five princes of the people against whom Ezekiel
prophesied on account of their wicked counsel (Ezek. 11:1-13).
Peleg - division, one of the sons of Eber; so called
because "in his days was the earth divided" (Gen. 10:25). Possibly he may have
lived at the time of the dispersion from Babel. But more probably the reference
is to the dispersion of the two races which sprang from Eber, the one spreading
towards Mesopotamia and Syria, and the other southward into Arabia.
Pelet - deliverance. (1.) A descendant of Judah (1
Chr. 2:47).
(2.) A Benjamite who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:3).
Peleth - swiftness. (1.) A Reubenite whose son was
one of the conspirators against Moses and Aaron (Num. 16:1).
(2.) One of the sons of Jonathan (1 Chr. 2:33).
Pelethites - mentioned always along with the
Cherethites, and only in the time of David. The word probably means "runners" or
"couriers," and may denote that while forming part of David's bodyguard, they
were also sometimes employed as couriers (2 Sam. 8:18; 20:7, 23;1 Kings 1:38,
44; 1 Chr. 18:17). Some, however, think that these are the names simply of two
Philistine tribes from which David selected his body-guard. They are mentioned
along with the Gittites (2 Sam. 15:18), another body of foreign troops whom
David gathered round him.
Pelicans - are frequently met with at the waters of
Merom and the Sea of Galilee. The pelican is ranked among unclean birds (Lev.
11:18; Deut. 14:17). It is of an enormous size, being about 6 feet long, with
wings stretching out over 12 feet. The Hebrew name (kaath, i.e., "vomiter") of
this bird is incorrectly rendered "cormorant" in the Authorized Version of Isa.
34:11 and Zeph. 2:14, but correctly in the Revised Version. It receives its
Hebrew name from its habit of storing in its pouch large quantities of fish,
which it disgorges when it feeds its young. Two species are found on the Syrian
coast, the Pelicanus onocrotalus, or white pelican, and the Pelicanus crispus,
or Dalmatian pelican.
Penny - (Gr. denarion), a silver coin of the value of
about 7 1/2d. or 8d. of our present money. It is thus rendered in the New
Testament, and is more frequently mentioned than any other coin (Matt. 18:28;
20:2, 9, 13; Mark 6:37; 14:5, etc.). It was the daily pay of a Roman soldier in
the time of Christ. In the reign of Edward III. an English penny was a
labourer's day's wages. This was the "tribute money" with reference to which our
Lord said, "Whose image and superscription is this?" When they answered,
"Caesar's," he replied, "Render therefore to Caesar the things that are
Caesar's; and to God the things that are God's" (Matt. 22:19; Mark 12:15).
Pentateuch - the five-fold volume, consisting of the
first five books of the Old Testament. This word does not occur in Scripture,
nor is it certainly known when the roll was thus divided into five portions
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. Probably that was done by the
LXX. translators. Some modern critics speak of a Hexateuch, introducing the Book
of Joshua as one of the group. But this book is of an entirely different
character from the other books, and has a different author. It stands by itself
as the first of a series of historical books beginning with the entrance of the
Israelites into Canaan. (See JOSHUA.)
The books composing the Pentateuch are properly but one book, the "Law of
Moses," the "Book of the Law of Moses," the "Book of Moses," or, as the Jews
designate it, the "Torah" or "Law." That in its present form it "proceeds from a
single author is proved by its plan and aim, according to which its whole
contents refer to the covenant concluded between Jehovah and his people, by the
instrumentality of Moses, in such a way that everything before his time is
perceived to be preparatory to this fact, and all the rest to be the development
of it. Nevertheless, this unity has not been stamped upon it as a matter of
necessity by the latest redactor: it has been there from the beginning, and is
visible in the first plan and in the whole execution of the work.", Keil, Einl.
i.d. A. T.
A certain school of critics have set themselves to reconstruct the books of
the Old Testament. By a process of "scientific study" they have discovered that
the so-called historical books of the Old Testament are not history at all, but
a miscellaneous collection of stories, the inventions of many different writers,
patched together by a variety of editors! As regards the Pentateuch, they are
not ashamed to attribute fraud, and even conspiracy, to its authors, who sought
to find acceptance to their work which was composed partly in the age of Josiah,
and partly in that of Ezra and Nehemiah, by giving it out to be the work of
Moses! This is not the place to enter into the details of this controversy. We
may say frankly, however, that we have no faith in this "higher criticism." It
degrades the books of the Old Testament below the level of fallible human
writings, and the arguments on which its speculations are built are altogether
untenable.
The evidences in favour of the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch are
conclusive. We may thus state some of them briefly:
(1.) These books profess to have been written by Moses in the name of God
(Ex. 17:14; 24:3, 4, 7; 32:7-10, 30-34; 34:27; Lev. 26:46; 27:34; Deut. 31:9,
24, 25).
(2.) This also is the uniform and persistent testimony of the Jews of all
sects in all ages and countries (comp. Josh. 8:31, 32; 1 Kings 2:3; Jer. 7:22;
Ezra 6:18; Neh. 8:1; Mal. 4:4; Matt. 22:24; Acts 15:21).
(3.) Our Lord plainly taught the Mosaic authorship of these books (Matt.
5:17, 18; 19:8; 22:31, 32; 23:2; Mark 10:9; 12:26; Luke 16:31; 20:37; 24:26, 27,
44; John 3:14; 5:45, 46, 47; 6:32, 49; 7:19, 22). In the face of this fact, will
any one venture to allege either that Christ was ignorant of the composition of
the Bible, or that, knowing the true state of the case, he yet encouraged the
people in the delusion they clung to?
(4.) From the time of Joshua down to the time of Ezra there is, in the
intermediate historical books, a constant reference to the Pentateuch as the
"Book of the Law of Moses." This is a point of much importance, inasmuch as the
critics deny that there is any such reference; and hence they deny the
historical character of the Pentateuch. As regards the Passover, e.g., we find
it frequently spoken of or alluded to in the historical books following the
Pentateuch, showing that the "Law of Moses" was then certainly known. It was
celebrated in the time of Joshua (Josh. 5:10, cf. 4:19), Hezekiah (2 Chr. 30),
Josiah (2 Kings 23; 2 Chr. 35), and Zerubbabel (Ezra 6:19-22), and is referred
to in such passages as 2 Kings 23:22; 2 Chr. 35:18; 1 Kings 9:25 ("three times
in a year"); 2 Chr. 8:13. Similarly we might show frequent references to the
Feast of Tabernacles and other Jewish institutions, although we do not admit
that any valid argument can be drawn from the silence of Scripture in such a
case. An examination of the following texts, 1 Kings 2:9; 2 Kings 14:6; 2 Chr.
23:18; 25:4; 34:14; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Dan. 9:11, 13, will also plainly show that
the "Law of Moses" was known during all these centuries.
Granting that in the time of Moses there existed certain oral traditions or
written records and documents which he was divinely led to make use of in his
history, and that his writing was revised by inspired successors, this will
fully account for certain peculiarities of expression which critics have called
"anachronisms" and "contradictions," but in no way militates against the
doctrine that Moses was the original author of the whole of the Pentateuch. It
is not necessary for us to affirm that the whole is an original composition; but
we affirm that the evidences clearly demonstrate that Moses was the author of
those books which have come down to us bearing his name. The Pentateuch is
certainly the basis and necessary preliminary of the whole of the Old Testament
history and literature. (See DEUTERONOMY.)
Pentecost - i.e., "fiftieth", found only in the New
Testament (Acts 2:1; 20:16; 1 Cor. 16:8). The festival so named is first spoken
of in Ex. 23:16 as "the feast of harvest," and again in Ex. 34:22 as "the day of
the firstfruits" (Num. 28:26). From the sixteenth of the month of Nisan (the
second day of the Passover), seven complete weeks, i.e., forty-nine days, were
to be reckoned, and this feast was held on the fiftieth day. The manner in which
it was to be kept is described in Lev. 23:15-19; Num. 28:27-29. Besides the
sacrifices prescribed for the occasion, every one was to bring to the Lord his
"tribute of a free-will offering" (Deut. 16:9-11). The purpose of this feast was
to commemorate the completion of the grain harvest. Its distinguishing feature
was the offering of "two leavened loaves" made from the new corn of the
completed harvest, which, with two lambs, were waved before the Lord as a thank
offering.
The day of Pentecost is noted in the Christian Church as the day on which the
Spirit descended upon the apostles, and on which, under Peter's preaching, so
many thousands were converted in Jerusalem (Acts 2).
Penuel - face of God, a place not far from Succoth,
on the east of the Jordan and north of the river Jabbok. It is also called
"Peniel." Here Jacob wrestled (Gen. 32:24-32) "with a man" ("the angel", Hos.
12:4. Jacob says of him, "I have seen God face to face") "till the break of
day."
A town was afterwards built there (Judg. 8:8; 1 Kings 12:25). The men of this
place refused to succour Gideon and his little army when they were in pursuit of
the Midianites (Judg. 8:1-21). On his return, Gideon slew the men of this city
and razed its lofty watch-tower to the ground.
Peor - opening. (1.) A mountain peak (Num. 23:28) to
which Balak led Balaam as a last effort to induce him to pronounce a curse upon
Israel. When he looked on the tribes encamped in the acacia groves below him, he
could not refrain from giving utterance to a remarkable benediction (24:1-9).
Balak was more than ever enraged at Balaam, and bade him flee for his life. But
before he went he gave expression to that wonderful prediction regarding the
future of this mysterious people, whose "goodly tents" were spread out before
him, and the coming of a "Star" out of Jacob and a "Sceptre" out of Israel
(24:14-17).
(2.) A Moabite divinity, called also "Baal-peor" (Num. 25:3, 5, 18; comp.
Deut. 3:29).
Perazim, Mount - mount of breaches, only in Isa.
28:21. It is the same as BAAL-PERAZIM (q.v.), where David gained a victory over
the Philistines (2 Sam. 5:20).
Peres - divided, one of the mysterious words "written
over against the candlestick upon the plaster of the wall" of king Belshazzar's
palace (Dan. 5:28). (See MENE.)