Contra Stavrinides Index
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Contra Stavrinides
by Frank Nelte
APPENDIX #3: REFERENCES FROM THE RANDOM HOUSE ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heraclitus (536-470 BC), important pre-Socratic philosopher. He held that all things are constantly changing, even the universe as a whole. Since only change is real, the orderliness of successive changes, or the world's destiny, is all that remains the same.
Socrates (469-399 BC), Greek philosopher. Written about by Plato, he spent most of his life in Athens, engaging those he met in profound philosophic discussions. Believing that the highest meaning of life is attained through self-knowledge, he tried to convince his fellow men of the value of self analysis. He was loyal to this "mission," having a "demon" inside that would not let him stray from his pursuit. Found guilty of impiety and corruption of the young, he was condemned to death and poisoned himself. He wrote nothing although his verbal teachings influenced many.
Plato (427-347 BC) Greek philosopher. Spending eight years as Socrates' disciple, he founded his Academy of philosophy near Athens, in 387, and taught there until his death. His works are well-preserved, including more than 25 dialogues and some letters. Believing the human mind can attain absolute truth, Plato's is a spiritualistic view of life. His works include The Republic, Theaetetus, Timaeus, Phaedo, and Gorgias.
Aristotle (384-322 BC), Greek philosopher, Plato's disciple for 19 years. After Plato's death, he opened his first school in Asia Minor. Having educated Philip of Macedon's son Alexander between 343 and 334 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens to open a school in the Lyceum. Upon Alexander's death (323), Aristotle, accused of impiety, fled to Euboea where he died a year later. Moving away from Plato's theory of the Forms, he developed the theory of the Unmoved Mover. Among his works are De Anima, Metaphysics, and Nicomachean Ethics.
Philo Judaeus, or Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BC - c. AD 54), Jewish philosopher, b. Egypt. He belonged to a school of thinkers who tried to blend the theology of the Jewish scriptures with Greek philosophy. Philo believed that God should be worshipped, but he had a philosopher's view of the nature of God. He held that God is pure being, present everywhere by his power but nowhere as a substance.
Plotinus (205-270), Roman Neo-Platonist philosopher. Greatly influenced by his teacher, Ammonius Saccas, he opened a school in Rome. His theories were basically Platonic with elements of other Greek philosophies. Although he opposed Christianity, his teachings have affected Christian thought. His pupil, Porphyry, compiled the six Enneads of Plotinus. See also {Neo-Platonism}
Neo-Platonism, a school of philosophy that had its greatest importance between about 250 and 550. Neo means new, but this school was more than a new version of Platonic thought. It combined Pythagorean, Stoic, Platonic, and Aristotelian ideas with strains from Jewish, Oriental, and Christian religions. In their view of the basic problem of good and evil, Neo-Platonists tended to be mystical and poetic more than philosophical. Forma-tive leaders of the movement were two 3rd century philosophers, Plotinus and Porphyry. One aim of these and other Neo-Platonists in Rome and Greece was to build a philosophy that could compete with the rising influence of Christianity. This effort failed, and the Emperor Justinian closed the Neo-Platonic academies in 529. Yet influences of Neo-Platonism persisted through medieval times.
Logic, branch of philosophy dealing with the systematic study of the structure of propositions and the criteria of valid inference. In abstracting from the content of propositions in order to examine their logical form, logic evaluates soundness or validity rather than truth per se. The history of logic begins with Aristotle, proceeding through Arabian and European logic in the Middle Ages and various post-Renaissance scholars, and resulting in the mathematical elaborations of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Inductive Logic, method of reasoning by which a general proposition is supported through consideration of particular cases that fall under it; often contrasted to deductive logic. Aristotle referred to induction as "a passage from individuals to universals."
Deductive Logic, method of inference in which a conclusion follows necessarily from one or more given premises; this is in contrast to induction. Although originally generalized from Aristotle's "syllogism," today a syllogism is only one special case of deduction.
Theology, systematic, scientific investigation of the precepts of a given religion. It is intricately related to philosophical and historical studies. It strives to achieve an understanding of various beliefs. Necessarily, it is concerned with concepts of a divine being, man, and moral law or ethics. It has many branches, such as dogmatic, historical, and systematic theology.
Septuagint (3rd/2nd century BC), Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament, written for the Greek-speaking Jewish community in Egypt. It is the oldest Greek translation of the Bible. The Septuagint contains the entire Jewish Canon plus the Apocrypha. It is divided into four sections: the law, history, poetry, and prophets. The books of the Apocrypha do not form a separate section, but are inserted throughout where suitable. It is still used by the Greek Orthodox Church.
Apocrypha, certain writings of the Old Testament not considered canonical by Jews and Protestants but generally included in the Roman Catholic canon. The Apocrypha consists of the following books: First Esdras, Second Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, the Prayer of Manasses, First Maccabees, Second Maccabees. Also included are the following parts of books: Esther 10.4 to 16.24 and Daniel 3.24-90, 13, and 14. In Roman Catholic bibles, these works are considered deuterocanonical, except for First and Second Esdras (numbered Third and Fourth Esdras in Catholic bibles) and the Prayer of Manasses. Those works are considered pseudoepigraphical and are usually placed in an index at the end of the Old Testament. The term "apocryphal" is also sometimes used to identify certain spurious New Testament writings.
Trinity, The, a central doctrine of Christianity, holding that God is three persons, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost). There is only one God, but he exists as "three in one and one in three." Theologians say that the nature of the Trinity is a mystery that cannot be comprehended by humans, although they can apprehend some of its meanings. The doctrine of the Trinity was stated in early Christian creeds to counter beliefs such as Gnosticism, which denied that Christ was wholly human during his life on Earth. God the Son was a man, but he is also "of one substance with the Father;" God made man through the power of the Holy Spirit.
Apostles' Creed, a formulated expression of beliefs used in Western Christianity as far back as the 2nd century. The creed is not the work of the apostles. Simple in form, it deals with the three persons of the Trinity.
Athanasian Creed, a Christian profession of faith that explains the teachings of the church on the Trinity and the incarnation. It is accepted as the authoritative profession in the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches.
Nicene Creed, a statement of Christian faith adopted at the Council of Nicaea in 325. The creed was formulated to uphold orthodox Christian doctrine against the Arian heresy. Followers of Arius held that Jesus was neither wholly God nor wholly man. The Nicene Creed affirms belief in " ...the only-begotten Son of God ... Being of one substance with the Father." This creed is used by the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches and, with one difference in wording, by the Orthodox Eastern Church.
Nicaea, Councils of. The First Council of Nicaea (AD 325) met at the order of Constantine I (the Great) of Rome. This first ecumenical council was attended by the major Eastern bishops, four Western bishops, and two papal legates. In conflict with Arianism, the council adopted a creed or test of faith that stated the divinity of Christ the Son and His position of equality within the Trinity. Arius and the two other bishops who refused to accept the creed were exiled to Illyricum. The council deliberated on other church matters and was the model for later church councils including the Second Council of Nicaea (787) convened by Irene, the Byzantine Empress. This was the seventh ecumenical council and the last to be recognized as such by both branches of the Catholic church. Its members ruled against the worship of images (iconoclasm).
Constantinople, First Council of (381), gathering of Christian bishops and other representatives. It was convoked by Emperor Theodosius I to unite the Eastern Church; there were no Western bishops or Roman legates present. Council decrees granted Con-stantinople honorary precedence over all churches but Rome, condemned Appolinarianism (the doctrine that Christ had a human body but a divine spirit), and upheld the doctrine of Christ's humanity. Although it is of a later date, the Nicene Creed is traditionally associated with this council.136.
Ambrose, Saint (c. 340-97), bishop of Milan, who resisted imperial demands to surrender Milan's churches to the Arians. He refused to compromise his orthodox position, and acquired a reputation for administrative skill and eloquence. Augustine mentions Ambrose as instrumental in his own conversion. He was also the author of works on theology and ethics that greatly influenced the thought of the Western Church.
Augustine, Saint (354-430), Christian theologian and philosopher. Augustine's Confessions gives us an intimate psychological self-portrait of a spirit in search of ultimate purpose. This he believed he found in his conversion to Christianity (386), which took place only after worldly and philosophical confusion. As bishop of Hippo (North Africa) from 396-430, he defended Roman Catholic orthodoxy against the Manichaeans, the Donatists and the Pelagians. According to the doctrine of his Enchiridion (421), he tended to emphasize the corruption of human will, and the freedom of the divine gift of grace. The City of God (426), perhaps his most enduring work, was a model of Christian apologetic literature. Of the Four Fathers of the Latin Church, which also included Ambrose, Jerome and Gregory, Augustine is considered the greatest.
Aquinas, Thomas (c. 1225-74), Roman Catholic theologian, philosopher, and saint. He joined the Dominican order, followed Albertus Magnus to Paris in 1245, and thereafter refused ecclesiastical dignities in order to preach and work on his Summa Theologica (1266-73). Revelation, he argued, could not conflict with reason, and while separate, they rested on the one absolute Truth. In the Summa Catholicae Fidei contra Gentiles, he defined theology as the queen of the sciences. The Summa was to system-atize all human knowledge by reconciling Aristotle and Christianity. Philosophically, he maintained the real existence of Universals. Aquinas was canonized in 1323.